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AI and Data Privacy Law: are we truly Protected by our data Shield?

1. Deepika, CLC, University of Delhi 2. Ajit Kumar, Faculty of Law, BHU 3.Pranjal Sahay, Bharti vidyapeeth university AI at a point can make human pointless as due to its usage people have stopped physical and neurological usage of their body. The physical activities of human will decrease which will impact the health of humans. Also , due to easy access of solution to problems at a certain period of time it might be possible that human will completely depend on AI and will stop using personal intelligence which will harm their neurological system. People will reduce their human interaction as AI will provide them with their emotional intelligence. It will not only harm in physical and emotional sense but also in financial sense. AI is way more efficient and efficient than human. Software like amto.ai has been developed to draft the file of a particular case in very less time against human who takes times for the procedure of drafting and there are more software present and are yet to come. Company will rely on AI for its fast working capacity which will eventually reduce the job opportunities for humans. AI has the power to create artificial environment. It can create a virtual ecosystem but this may hamper the actual natural environment. There are chances that due to AI at a certain point artificial natural resources will introduced for the survival but it will definitely impact the natural ecosystem which can be threat to living beings. Another aspect which should made forward is the infringement of privacy by AI. AI is present everywhere in the cyber world today. Be it any website or application AI collects individuals personal information which can affect the privacy. This sensitive information can be used against an individual and may create threat in personal as well as in professional life. Students use resumes generated through AI for which they have to agree certain terms and conditions which are usually overlooked. Also, while making transaction through online banking terms and conditions appears but is not taken into account. This definitely can lead to threaten to privacy of individuals. There might be possibility that these personal information can get into wrong hands which can create cyber problems like online threatening, obscenity, frauds, etc . In order to resolve the problems certain legislations has been to take control on AI. Data Privacy Law At Global Level:- Due to advancement in technology such as the advent of the AI, internet, mobile, devices and social media platforms, misuse of personal data is increasing day by day. So, the question is: how can we solve it ? To solve the problem, countries at the global level have taken some important steps, such as The European Union (EU) has passed the General Data Protection Regulation in 2018 and the USA has adopted a sectoral approach to privacy regulation and other countries such as Canada and Nigeria, have also taken steps.All these step will be discuss in following manner:- Steps taken by European Union (EU):- EU has passed the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in 2018. The European Union (EU) stands at the forefront of global privacy protection with the enactment of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in 2018 (Cortez, 2020). The GDPR introduces a set of fundamental principles to govern the processing of personal data (Tamburri, 2020). It is enacted to regulate personal data and unify the data protection law across the europe. It is not bound by the territory, the GDPR applies to all the organizations. Crucially, the regulation establishes a robust framework for cross-border data transfers, promoting a unified approach to international data flows (Jiang, 2022. Okunade et al., 2023). This act contained some principles such as:- a) Fairness b) purpose limitation © Data minimization (d) Accuracy (e)Integrity and confidentiality etc. Further this act also provide some rights to the individual such as:- Right to Access Right to be forgotten Right ot be rectification Right to object Right to data portability Right to restriction of processing. In this act there is also provision regarding appointment of the Data Protection officer. The officer is required to be appointed by some organization. The main duty of the officer is to oversee the misuse of the data protection activity. In this act there is also provision of the penalties for non- compliance. Organizations can face penalties up to €20 million or 4% of their global annual turnover, whichever is higher. Steps Taken by the USA:- Unlike the EU, the United States follows a sectoral approach to privacy regulation, with laws addressing specific industries and types of data (Hartzog and Richards, 2020). Means there is no single data protection law like GDPR. The USA has adopted a sectoral approach to regulate privacy data in its country. In the usa there are lots of privacy laws such as: California consumer privacy act, provides rights to the residents of the california regarding the collection and use of their personal data.Consumer has right to know what data is being collected and for which purpose it will be used. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)- it deals with healthcare data. It applies for healthcare data and healthcare plans that deal with protected health information. The Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA):-it applies to operators of websites and service providers who knowingly collect the data from children under the age of 13 years old. Before collecting the data from the children under the age of 13 years old you have to take permission from its parents. The Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (GLBA):- it applies in financial institutions and financial institutions require establishing the privacy policy regarding the financial information of the individuals. Steps Taken by the Canada:- in Canada, data privacy is governed by the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA).it is a federal law which sets some rules for how private organizations can collect, use and disclose personal information in the course of commercial activity. Further it also

February 28, 2025 No Comments

Blog

Corruption and Transparency in Governance: A Continuous Struggle

This article explores the impact of corruption on governance and the importance of transparency in ensuring accountability. It discusses various forms of corruption, their consequences, and the measures needed to combat them. By emphasizing ethical leadership, institutional reforms, and public participation, the article highlights how transparency strengthens democracy and promotes effective governance.

February 28, 2025 No Comments

Gender Equality

Rural Women in Indian Politics

This post examines the growing participation of rural women in Indian politics, using literature reviews and diverse sources like the Election Commission and internet portals. Additionally, a case study method analysis of women’s participation in politics in the states of Karnataka and Odisha, which have both followed differing trajectories with respect to improving participation; has been undertaken. The study observed that while participation has substantially increased, there remain significant challenges and barriers to be met.

February 28, 2025 No Comments

Gender Equality

Gender equality

Gender Equality -By Rahul singh Introduction Gender equality is a fundamental human right and a cornerstone for a peaceful, prosperous, and sustainable society . The main aim of the is to achieve a world where people are free to share views irrespective of their gender and get acknowledge and praise for their contribution. The world without equality is like a world without right to present the views so the Sustainable development 5 of Gender equality is yet to achieved and its target to hit the target by 2030. Understanding SDG 5 SDG 5 or Gender equality primary focuses on ending all sorts of Discrimination and providing a variable environment where participation of women is must and they are free to raise their voices against any sort of violence and discrimination that’s prevelant in the society. To get full benefit of the resources we should be just in providing equal opportunities so as to improve the quality of life and make a world a better place. Measures to be taken to end Discrimination to be followed End Discrimination: Discrimination all sorts of is driving wedge in the society, it creates a environment where people feel uncomfortable to share their views and are afraid of violence so discrimination should be ended to give people a just society with free flow of views . End Violence: Violence against women had been a major issue in the society ,it’s more prevalent in the rural areas where people don’t allow their partners to move out of their houses without their permission. Human trafficking and violence is the issue that has to be dealt with as it is a curse to the society where we couldn’t respect women. Eliminate Harmful Practices: In most of the underdeveloped and developing countries and moreover in rural areas child marriage and female infanticide is a common phenomenon which leads to a condition of violence against women and therefore creating a world where women struggle to find their space in the society. Ensure Participation: Participation of women in all aspects is a must for the society as it gives a platform for proper utilisation of the resources of the country and more creating a society where freedom of speech and right to raise the voices against the any discrimination leads to a better society . Action taken by Indian Government in field of gender equality Legal and Policy Frameworks Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005: This law was implemented with the view to ensure the rights of the women in household, main aim was to protect them domestic violence in all respect and protect their rights . The women could file complain in their local police station about any violence against them and police are entitled to take strict action against the people. Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013: This law was implemented to protect the women in their workplace and provide a urgent redressal and action against the culprit. This safeguard the women and provide a healthy workplace environment where they could work with their own will and seek help for any violence. Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961: This act prohibits the giving or taking of dowry, a practice that has been a major issue of the society, it address the issue and take action against culprit for taking any sort of gifts taking for marriage. Government Programs to empower women Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP): It was launched as course of action for declining girl child ratio in the census of 2011 and it main objective was to restrict malpractices of abortion of child by gender identification by ultra sound technology. It also aims to provide girl child with primary education and empowering them to take part in the society. Mahila Shakti Kendra (MSK): This scheme provides women with loan to finance their skills and open ventures so as to take part in the society. This helps in women skill empowerment and helps to putting their skills onboard and earn from it. The Importance of Gender Equality Achieving gender equality is crucial for several reasons: Economic Growth: women participation and upskilling helps growth of the society and economy as a whole as it provides a platform for the women to share their views and also be a part of it . It’s needed as it improves the quality of life of the people and moreover changing views of the people and making a economy great. Health and Well-being: Education and participation of women help upskilling the youth of the society and moreover proving them a better view of the future and decrease in the rate of abuse against women as they could raise their voice against the unjust to them. Peace and Stability: Societies with greater gender equality are more peaceful and stable. Women’s participation helps to give a society new outlook and moreover helps in achieving goal and improving the life of the people. Achieving SDG Goals: Sdg goals which are entitled to be achieved before 2030 are not possible without the participation of women , they are the essential component of the society and their insights can’t be ignored and moreover it’s needed to achieve the upcoming goals and improve the standard of living of the people and helps the country and moreover society as whole to grow. Conclusion To become a global leader we have to make a just full society where expression of views are not suppressed due to gender and everyone as a whole take part and helps in growth of economy as whole. Education of each is necessary and moreover lives of each one matters so female infanticide should not be a part of any developing or developed society . Citations Invisible Women: Exposing Data Bias in a World Designed for Men by Caroline perez Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe The Color Purple by alice walker Possessing the Secret of Joy alice walker Sexual Politics by kate millet The Birth of the Pill: How

February 27, 2025 No Comments

Health

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) by Eesha Madan 1) Abstract Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common childhood neurodevelopmental disorders that impacts the parts of the brain that help us plan, focus on, and execute tasks. ADHD symptoms vary by sub-type — inattentive, hyperactive, or combined — and are often more difficult to diagnose in girls and adults. Here, we review the symptoms, causes, types, and treatments associated with ADHD. 2) Understanding Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: ADHD, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, is a developmental condition of inattention and distractibility, with or without accompanying hyperactivity. It is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders affecting children. The signs of ADHD start early in childhood. But some people don’t find out they have it until they are older. Individuals suffering from this disorder show patterns of developmentally inappropriate levels of inattentiveness, hyperactivity, or impulsivity. Scientists have discovered there are differences in the brains, nerve networks and neurotransmitters of people with ADHD. It can limit a person’s ability to study or work, and it can lead to stress, anxiety, and depression. This disorder includes Autism Spectrum, Intellectual Disability and Specific Learning Disorders. These disorders if not attended to can lead to more serious and chronic disorders in adulthood. An article published in “India Today” mentioned that it is estimated that 10 million Indian children are diagnosed with ADHD annually. 3) Signs of ADHD All kids struggle at times to pay attention, listen and follow directions, sit still, or wait their turn. But for kids with ADHD, the struggles are harder and happen more often. Kids with ADHD can show signs in different areas. They might be: Inattentive: Kids who are inattentive (easily distracted) have trouble focusing their attention, concentrating, and staying on task. They may not listen well to directions, may miss important details, and may not finish what they start. They may daydream or dawdle too much. They may seem absent-minded or forgetful and may lose track of their things. Hyperactive: Hyperactive Kids are fidgety, restless, and easily bored. They may have trouble sitting still, or staying quiet when needed. They may rush through things and make careless mistakes. They may climb, jump, or roughhouse when they shouldn’t. Without meaning to, they may act in ways that disrupt others. Impulsive: Kids who are impulsive act too quickly before thinking. They often interrupt, might push or grab, and find it hard to wait. They may do things without asking for permission, take things that aren’t theirs, or act in ways that are risky. They may have emotional reactions that seem too intense for the situation. Sometimes parents and teachers notice signs of ADHD when a child is very young. But it’s normal for little kids to be distracted, restless, impatient, or impulsive — these things don’t always mean that a child has ADHD. Attention, activity, and self-control develop little by little, as children grow. Kids learn these skills with help from parents and teachers. But some kids don’t get much better at paying attention, settling down, listening, or waiting. When these things continue and begin to cause problems at school, home, and with friends, it may be ADHD. Some people with ADHD have fewer symptoms as they age, but some adults continue to have major symptoms that interfere with daily functioning. In adults, the main features of ADHD may include difficulty paying attention, impulsiveness and restlessness. Symptoms can range from mild to severe. Many adults with ADHD aren’t aware they have it — they just know that everyday tasks can be a challenge. Adults with ADHD may find it difficult to focus and prioritize, leading to missed deadlines and forgotten meetings or social plans. The inability to control impulses can range from impatience waiting in line or driving in traffic to mood swings and outbursts of anger. Adult ADHD symptoms may include: Impulsiveness Disorganization and problems prioritizing Poor time management skills Problems focusing on a task Trouble multitasking Excessive activity or restlessness Poor planning Low frustration tolerance Frequent mood swings Problems following through and completing tasks Hot temper Trouble coping with stress 4) What causes ADHD? Despite how common ADHD is, doctors and researchers still are not sure what causes the condition. The exact cause of ADHD is unknown, but the condition has been shown to run in families. While there is growing evidence that genetics contribute to ADHD and several genes have been linked to the disorder, no specific gene or gene combination has been identified as the cause of the disorder. However, some research suggests that the following factors may play a role in developing ADHD: Genetics: Around 3 out of 4 children with ADHD have a relative with the condition. Premature birth: Infants born even 1 month prematurely may face an increased risk of developing ADHD. Low birth weight: Results of one meta-analysisTrusted Source suggest a small but significant link between low birth weight and the development of ADHD. Stress and other lifestyle factors during pregnancy: Findings of a study from 2012 support a previously established connection between maternal stress during pregnancy and the development of ADHD. The authors of this study conclude that smoking tobacco and drinking alcohol during pregnancy may also increase the child’s risk of developing the disorder. Traumatic brain injury: In 2015, researchers found a possible linkTrusted Source between mild traumatic brain injury and ADHD in student athletes. However, the causal relationship was unclear. ADHD is not caused by too much screen time, poor parenting, or eating too much sugar. 5) Types of ADHD: According to DSM-5, the 3 types of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are (1) predominantly inattentive, (2) predominantly hyperactive/impulsive, and (3) combined. The specific criteria for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are as follows: 5.1 Inattentive: This must include at least 6 of the following symptoms of inattention that must have persisted for at least 6 months to a degree that is maladaptive and inconsistent with developmental level: Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, work, or

February 27, 2025 No Comments

Decent Work and Economic Growth

Unemployment Dynamics Across GDP Levels

Unemployment trends across GDP levels reveal a multifaceted relationship influenced by structural barriers, sectoral transitions, education, and productivity. Economic growth often increases unemployment among low-educated workers due to institutional constraints, while transitions to modern sectors create temporary job gaps. Education significantly impacts employment, favoring higher-skilled individuals, while trade and sectoral productivity shape wage inequality and job availability. Inclusive policies, such as education access, retraining programs, structural reforms, and investments in productivity, are vital for fostering sustainable growth and equitable job opportunities.

February 27, 2025 No Comments

Health

Impact of Social Connections in Old Age

Impact of Social Connections in Old Age By Bhavya Gupta Introduction Social connections are an integral part of individuals’ mental and emotional well-being throughout their lives, especially in their later years. Social connectedness means a temporary feeling of belonging together with others. It can be defined in terms of inclusiveness, satisfaction with one’s social situation, and degree of saliency of ties, without necessarily requiring immediate contact. It translates social experiences arising from recent interactions with and the consciousness of others (Van Bel et.al., 2009). Good numbers of social relations have been reported to reduce depression and anxiety in geriatric populations (Scazufca & Seward, 2024). Old age is connected with a variety of psychosocial problems- loneliness, depression, and deterioration of cognitive functions among others In older adults, it has been established that social interaction and the frequency of socialization are correlated with decreased risk of cognitive failure and dementia (Mahalingam et al., 2023). For elderly people, one-fourth experience loneliness, which increases their vulnerability to various mental health problems (Scazufca & Seward, 2024). Further research also points out that even low levels of social interaction result in fewer depressive symptoms (Lee et al., 2024). Social isolation has been conceptualized as a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias (Joshi et al., 2023). Psychological Landscape of Old Age In general, the psychological terrain of old age is burdened with complex mental health issues, arising from social isolation and loneliness. Literature shows that over half of older persons report suffering from social isolation, and a significant number estimated one-third-suffer severe loneliness, thus leading to further risks of mental health disorders such as depression and cognitive decline (Sivakumar et al., 2024; Puglia, 2022). Common Mental Health Challenges Depression and Anxiety: Depression during the old age stage is very common, which often roots into such emotional substructures as loss, diminished mobility, or the lessened sense of self-worth that accompanies retirement (Bryant, 2010). Depression in old age is also associated with cognitive impairment and contributes to a heightened risk for suicidal ideation and behaviours among older persons (Puglia, 2022). Cognitive Decline: Even though older adults remain dementia-free for their lifetime, there comes cognitive decline and neurodegenerative alteration with this advancing age, which suggests shared pathophysiological mechanisms (Gonzales et.al., 2019). According to these studies, it is noted that loneliness impacts mental well-being like what physical deteriorations do by worsening cognitive problems, as well as in conjunction with increased risk for Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias (Kim & Chey, 2023). Dementia and Behavioral Symptoms: Behavioral symptoms including agitation, confusion, and aggression are common in some cases of dementia in the elderly, which puts demand on family relationships and increases the burden of formal caregivers. Under such strain, many families consider alternatives, opting for institutionalisation, since few caregivers can meet the high needs of their loved ones at home (Puglia, 2022). Contributing Factors Physical health: It has been observed that greater experiences of adversities over a lifetime impair physical health (Levinsky & Schiff, 2021). These often present chronic health conditions leading to a reduction in social interactions (Sivakumar et al., 2024). Retirement: Different types of social disconnection that cause much loneliness may surface as a result of the transition from working life to retirement (Kim & Chey, 2023). Life transitions: Emotional health can be seriously affected by phase transitions such as the death of loved ones or bereavement (“The Landscape of Loneliness,” 2022). Despite these common challenges in the ageing population, an impressive number of aged people display resilience and adaptiveness towards the ageing process. Research suggests that strong community support, family involvement, and opportunities for meaningful social interaction form a trinity to cushion these people from mental health-related challenges. Such an atmosphere that favours social engagement is critical in enhancing sound mental health and preventing experiences of loneliness among the elderly, culminating in improved quality of life. Social connection is eminent in ensuring good mental health, particularly in older adults. Valuable social networks can reduce loneliness, increase much-needed emotional support, and foster stimulating cognitive engagements that, in turn, lower the risk of developing severe cognitive decline. Such studies show that frequent social engagements grant them better emotional well-being; older adults with strong social networks are less likely to suffer from depression and anxiety (Awad et al., 2024; Scazufca & Seward, 2024). The Reduction of Loneliness and Isolation One of the salient dividends of social connections is bringing about a sense of well-being in older adults combating loneliness, which has been acknowledged as a significant problem in over 50% of older adults (Sivakumar et al., 2024). Loneliness in advanced years has seen its negative impact in causing emotional distress, and social engagement is an available remedy. Joining community activities such as clubs, going to senior centres, and group parties fosters a sense of belonging and agency, strengthening one’s identity and connection with others. Emotional Support Emotional support can be defined as care, concern, empathy, reassurance, comfort, and acceptance expressed through verbal or nonverbal means. Emotional support is quite important in self-help groups wherein members share support, and it is equally valuable in attachment relationships, wherein caregivers provide emotional support to children (American Psychological Association, 2018). This support reduces hopelessness and therefore lessens stress levels, which could otherwise be problematic for the affected aged persons dealing with their health issues, grief, or changing life transitions (Awad et al., 2024). Such emotional bonds offered to persons become shields when the mental scape is attacked or in poor condition and serve right that which had developed resilience among older adults, thus enabling them to cope better with life problems and maintain a feeling of positivity. There is ample vent for thinking that emotional support offers significant protection from cognitive decline, but the neural mechanisms that may or may not involve this support in such cognitive functions remain at best unclear (Kim et.al., 2019). Engagement for Cognitive Cliff: Development of Cognitive Abilities Frequent social interactions also continue to yield effectual support on cognitive health. Studies have shown that engaging socially stimulates cognitive

February 27, 2025 No Comments

Climate Action

The Climate-Conflict Nexus: Examining Environmental Change and Global Security Risks

This article examines the complex relationship between climate change and global security, highlighting how environmental degradation intensifies resource scarcity, social inequalities, and geopolitical tensions. It presents key case studies, such as the Syrian Civil War, the shrinking Lake Chad Basin, and rising sea levels affecting Pacific Island nations, demonstrating how climate impacts can drive conflicts. The article also offers policy recommendations, including investments in climate resilience, fostering international cooperation, addressing climate migration, and incorporating climate risks into security planning. It emphasizes the urgent need for comprehensive solutions to address the intertwined challenges of climate change and global instability.

February 27, 2025 No Comments

Quality Education

Breaking Barriers: Unleashing Women’s Education for Sustainable Change in India

Women’s education is a milestone for sustainable change. Education provides wisdom, clarity, and brings awareness into everyone’s life. Education gives empowerment to women, and empowerment creates a healthy lifestyle in women’s lives. Women play a significant role in the development of a sustainable society. At present, we couldn’t create a greater pathway without providing equitable, justifiable, and inclusive education to women. Women face a lot of challenges in their lives in regards to completing their education. In order to provide a safe atmosphere, along with government initiative, we also need to tackle all the barriers and have to remove social stigma, gender disparities, etc.

February 27, 2025 No Comments

Health

Efficacy of pharmacological interventions in schizophrenia treatment Research

by Palak Parashar, Humaira Hasan, Upasana Koul Introduction Schizophrenia is a serious brain disorder affecting around 1% of the global population and is one of the top 10 causes of disability worldwide (Marder & Cannon, 2019). This condition is characterized by symptoms such as hallucinations (e.g., seeing or hearing things that aren’t there), delusions (false beliefs), disorganized speech, and abnormal behavior. Additionally, individuals with schizophrenia often experience a lack of motivation, reduced emotional expression, and cognitive difficulties, including problems with thinking, memory, and decision-making (Jauhar, Johnstone, & McKenna, 2022). The impact on daily life can be significant, leading to severe disability and incomplete recovery. Even individuals who show improvement may still struggle with social isolation, stigma, and limited opportunities for building close relationships. Unemployment rates are high among those with schizophrenia, and lifestyle factors such as poor diet, weight gain, smoking, and substance use contribute to a reduced life expectancy of 13 to 15 years (Hjorthøj, Stürup, McGrath, & Nordentoft, 2017; Kahn, 2020). The lifetime risk of death by suicide for individuals with schizophrenia ranges from 5% to 10% (McCutcheon, Reis Marques, & Howes, 2020). Current diagnosis and treatment primarily target psychotic symptoms, but negative and cognitive symptoms are equally important due to their significant impact on social and professional functioning. These symptoms often do not respond well to conventional antipsychotic medications (Kahn, 2020; Jauhar, Johnstone, & McKenna, 2022). Historically, schizophrenia was conceptualized by Emil Kraepelin as “dementia praecox,” a term later renamed “schizophrenia” by Eugen Bleuler. Notably, both Kraepelin and Bleuler did not consider positive symptoms like delusions and hallucinations as the primary characteristics of the disorder. This historical perspective supports the view that a more comprehensive approach is needed for understanding and treating schizophrenia (Kahn, 2020). Schizophrenia diagnosis involves a detailed psychiatric history and mental status examination, ruling out other potential medical and psychiatric causes of psychosis. Risk factors for developing schizophrenia include birth complications, being born in a specific season, maternal malnutrition, maternal influenza during pregnancy, a family history of the disorder, childhood trauma, social isolation, cannabis use, minority ethnicity, and living in urban environments (Messias, Chen, & Eaton, 2007; Davis et al., 2016). The exact cause and biological mechanisms of schizophrenia remain unclear due to its complexity and variability. Despite being relatively uncommon, schizophrenia has a significant impact on the global burden of disease, with more than half of those diagnosed experiencing multiple coexisting psychiatric and medical conditions (Chong et al., 2016). The pharmacological treatment for schizophrenia:- Pharmacological treatment for schizophrenia primarily involves antipsychotic medications, which are categorized into two groups:- 1.First-generation antipsychotics (FGAs) 2.Second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs) 1)First-generation antipsychotics, also known as typical antipsychotics, are dopamine receptor antagonists (DRA). These include: Phenothiazines, trifluoperazine, perphenazine, prochlorperazine, acetophenazine, triflupromazine, mesoridazine Butyrophenones: haloperidol Thioxanthenes: thiothixene, chlorprothixene Dibenzoazepines: loxapine Dihydroindoles: molindone Diphenylbutylpiperidines: pimozide. (Drummond N, McCleary L, Freiheit E, Molnar F, Dalziel W, Cohen C, Turner D, Miyagishima R, Silvius J. 2018 Jennings AA, Guerin N, Foley T. Faden J, Citrome L. Pharmacother. 2019) . 2. Second-generation antipsychotics, also known as atypical antipsychotics, are serotonindopamine antagonists. As of 2016, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved 12 atypical antipsychotics. These are: Risperidone Quetiapine Aripiprazole Asenapine Lurasidone Iloperidone Brexpiprazole Clozapine ( Haddad PM, Correll CU. Nov 2018) . What is Schizophrenia? Schizophrenia may be defined as an acute mental illness that is characterized by disturbance in cognition( illogical thinking), behavior, speech, and hallucinations(hearing voices, seeing things that aren’t present) or delusions. (American Psychological Association, n.d.) The DSM-5, or the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, describes the symptoms of schizophrenia as including disorganized speech (e.g., frequent derailment or incoherence), delusions, hallucinations, or catatonic behavior. (NCBI, n.d., Table 22) Prevalence and Onset: Schizophrenia is a genetic neurocognitive disorder that affects approximately 1% of the population, typically appearing between the ages of 21 and 25 in males and 25 and 30 in females. (Zhan et al., 2023) Extensive research suggests that from 1990 to 2019, global schizophrenia cases rose by over 65%, new diagnoses by 37%, and health impacts (DALYs) by 65%, while age-adjusted rates stayed stable. (Solmi et al., 2023) Treatment: Schizophrenia treatment is lifelong and combines medications with psychosocial support, guided by a psychiatrist and a care team. Antipsychotic medications, including both first- and second-generation options, are the primary treatment, with long-acting injectables available for better adherence. Additional medications, such as antidepressants or mood stabilizers, may be used based on individual needs. Psychosocial approaches like therapy, social skills training, family support, and vocational rehabilitation enhance coping, communication, and daily life skills. Severe cases may require hospitalization for stabilization, while electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is considered for those unresponsive to other treatments. With proper care, many people with schizophrenia can manage their symptoms effectively. (Mayo Clinic, n.d.) Prescribed Drugs First-Generation Antipsychotics First-generation antipsychotics (FGAs), also known as typical antipsychotics, primarily work by blocking dopamine receptors to alleviate symptoms of various mental health conditions. These medications are commonly prescribed for issues such as acute mania, agitation, and bipolar disorder. Some examples of FGAs include Chlorpromazine (Thorazine), Fluphenazine (Prolixin), Haloperidol (Haldol), and Loxapine (Loxitane), among others. (Mayo Clinic, n.d.) Mechanism: Both first- and second-generation antipsychotics block dopamine in the ventral tegmentum to reduce positive symptoms. However, first-generation drugs also affect the nigrostriatal dopamine system, leading to extrapyramidal side effects, which second-generation drugs cause less frequently. (Grace & Uliana, 2023) Efficacy: Studies revealed minimal differences in efficacy between First Generation Antipsychotics and Second Generation Antipsychotics, but haloperidol was less effective than amisulpride and clozapine. Additionally, olanzapine showed greater improvement in functional capacity compared to quetiapine and ziprasidone. (Pike et al., 2009) Second Generation Antipsychotics Second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs), also known as atypical antipsychotics, are newer medications that work differently from first-generation antipsychotics. Instead of fully blocking dopamine receptors, SGAs partially block them and may also influence other neurotransmitters like serotonin. Examples of SGAs include Aripiprazole (Abilify), Clozapine (Clozaril), Olanzapine (Zyprexa), Risperidone (Risperdal), and Quetiapine (Seroquel). (Mayo Clinic, n.d.) Mechanism: These medications inhibit some serotonin and dopamine

February 27, 2025 No Comments

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