Khushi Jain, Bhumi Sharma Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the leading causes of death and disability worldwide. It is one of the significant problems in older adults. In individuals aged 65 and above, TBI is the cause of more than 80,000 emergency hospital visits every year out of which more than half lead to hospitalisation. Adults aged 75 and older have the highest rates of TBI-related hospitalization and death. Falls are the leading cause of TBI for older adults (51%), and motor vehicle traffic crashes are second (9%) (Thompson et al., 2006). Age is also associated with comorbidities, such as diabetes, hypertension, and chronic renal failure, which may worsen outcomes. Also, a high percentage of older people use medications (e.g., anticoagulants and/or antiplatelets) which may worsen cerebral damage after trauma. The aged brain may be more vulnerable to TBI, with less plasticity and repair after injury (Kovacs, 2005). In addition, older people often present with alterations in cognition, memory, mood, and motor function (Glorioso and Sibille, 2011), which can hamper rehabilitation after TBI (Stocchetti et al., 2012). It has also been observed that an average of 634,000 incidents of traumatic brain injury (TBI) occurs among children each year in the United States, with the highest TBI-related emergency room visits occurring in children under the age of 4 years and adolescents 15 years or older (Li & Liu, 2013) Traumatic brain injury in children commonly involves the frontal lobes, and is associated with distinct structural and behavioural changes. Although injuries to this region are clinically significant during brain development, the mechanisms behind secondary damage and long-term recovery remain poorly understood (Chen et al., 2013). Understanding the unique vulnerabilities of both older adults and children to TBI highlights the need for targeted prevention, early intervention, and improved rehabilitation strategies to enhance long-term outcomes. Aging and Youth at Risk: The Impact of Traumatic Brain Injury on Older Adults and Children Research has demonstrated that age is the strongest clinical predictor of recovery from TBI, second only to measures of injury severity (Dikmen and Machamer, 1995; Vollmer, 1993). Advanced age is considered a negative prognostic indicator. Elderly individuals appear to be at an increased risk for poor outcomes following TBI (Goleburn & Golden, 2001). After a period of relatively low risk in middle adulthood, older adults are at an increased risk for head trauma beginning at age 65 and peaking at age 70 (Fields and Coffey, 1994). In the United States, the estimated annual rate of TBI in persons in the sixth and seventh decades of life is 150–200 per 100,000 people (Cooper, as cited in Goldstein and Levin, 1995). There are age differences in the physiological structures in the structures of brains of older people as compared to younger individuals that make them susceptible to subdural hematomas after a brain injury. For instance, cerebral decline that follows aging leads to stretching of parasagittal bridging veins, leaving them more vulnerable to severe effects even after a minor trauma. In events like a fall, the impact often causes these veins to burst, causing subdural hematoma. Biologically, with aging, white matter and vasculature become more susceptible to injury, injury response mechanisms such as autophagy is dampened, and prevalence of pre-existing neurological or systemic comorbidities increases. Unsurprisingly, older adults with TBI experience higher morbidity and mortality, and slower recovery trajectories and have, on average, worse functional, cognitive, and psychosocial outcomes months or years post-injury than do younger patients (Gardner et al., 2018). Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a serious public health concern and is the most frequent cause of disruption to normal childhood development. TBI occurs when a sudden trauma triggers the brain to move rapidly within the skull, leading to neuronal damage. TBI can result from the head suddenly hitting an object, from a non-impact force, such as blast waves or rapid acceleration and deceleration, or from an object puncturing the skull and penetrating the brain tissue. Although TBI can occur across the lifespan, this type of brain injury can be particularly devastating for the developing brain. This interruption of normal brain development and the cascading effects of TBI may alter the course of brain development and its functioning (Laura S. Blackwell PhD et al., 2023) Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the most common causes of death and long-term disability in the pediatric age range (Gotschall, 1993; Kraus, 1995). According to a report on Emergency Department (ED) visit, hospitalizations, and deaths in the United States for the years 1995–2001 (Langlois et al., 2006), nearly half a million children 0–14 years of age had TBI each year during this period. Of this number, 91.6% were treated and released from an ED, 7.8 % were hospitalized, and .6% died (Laura S. Blackwell PhD et al., 2023). Given the high prevalence and significant impact of TBI in children, it is crucial to monitor their development closely and assess potential long-term effects, to ensure appropriate interventions and support. The Long-Term Impact of Traumatic Brain Injury in Older Adults: Challenges, Outcomes, and Rehabilitation Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a devastating injury, often resulting in death or chronic disability that disrupts family, community, and vocational ties. According to new research, the effects of TBI are greater and long-term in older populations. Elderly patients tend to have higher mortality and worse outcomes than younger patients, even if the injuries they suffer are less severe. Even if the injury sustained is similar in type and severity in both, older populations go through longer rehabilitation stays, suffer higher rehabilitation costs and have greater levels of disabilities. The risk of death after the age of 65 is the maximum. Older individuals suffering from TBI are known to suffer increased deterioration mood, psychosocial functioning, and cognition, and are less likely to have complete recovery in psychosocial areas of functioning after TBI as compared to younger patients. According to Rothweiler et al. increased age at the time of sustaining a brain injury was related to greater dependence, changes in living conditions and increased
