this article explores international and domestic frameworks addressing cyberthreats, with a comparative analysis
of India, Bangladesh and Nigeria highlighting the gaps, strengths, and recommendations and strategic reforms,
Multilateral diplomacy has been determined by international context and relationships among global actors. Some scholars agree with the statement that the dimensions and coordinates of the multipolar world are still unclear. The world is on the way to creating and reforming institutions and rules based on international law and cooperation policies, where emerging powers aim to take an important role.
This paper examines how Artificial Intelligence can improve access, equity, and outcomes in urban public health policy in India, with a particular focus on mental health. It highlights digital and gendered divides and proposes inclusive, community-based solutions for AI-driven health delivery.
Keywords: Rural Inflation, Poverty, Cost of living, Basic amenities, Healthcare access, Food Insecurity, Education affordability, Housing crises, India and Nigeria, Low-income households The Impact of Inflation on Access to Basic Amenities in Rural Communities: A Comparative Study of Nigeria and India Introduction Inflation in rural areas has emerged as a critical global concern in contemporary times, significantly affecting the well-being and resilience of rural households. As the prices of basic necessities continue to surge, rural families are finding it increasingly difficult to meet their daily needs, especially in the essential areas of food, housing, education, and healthcare. These four pillars, which form the backbone of human development, are being eroded by persistent inflation, threatening the very fabric of rural life. One of the most pressing issues is the intersection of food basket inflation and limited employment opportunities. The rising cost of staple foods, coupled with stagnating or informal income sources, has created a severe resource deficit in rural households. This financial strain forces families to make harsh trade-offs, such as choosing between nutritious meals and medical care, or between school fees and house repairs, thereby compounding their vulnerability. Compared to their urban counterparts, rural households are disproportionately affected. Factors such as lower per capita income, limited access to technology, poor infrastructure, and fewer formal employment opportunities widen the rural-urban divide. While urban residents may have relatively better access to social safety nets or diversified income streams, rural populations often lack the institutional and economic buffers needed to withstand prolonged inflationary shocks. Literature Review Food inflation poses a critical challenge to rural households’ food security in both Nigeria and India. In Nigeria, rising food prices severely impact household access to sufficient, nutritious food, leading to decreased dietary diversity and increased vulnerability to economic shocks, especially among rural communities that rely heavily on agriculture and limited market access (Anugwa & Ugwu, 2022). Similarly, in India, food inflation reaching 10.9% in 2024 has intensified the financial burden on rural families, where over half of income is spent on food, resulting in limited accessibility and negative health outcomes like malnutrition and anemia. Factors such as global commodity prices, crop focus on staples, and supply chain inefficiencies aggravate the situation (Fathima, 2024). Both contexts underline the urgent need for long-term interventions, including improving agricultural productivity, crop diversification, strengthened supply chains, and effective social support systems like cash transfers and efficient Public Distribution Systems, to enhance food security and rural resilience to inflationary pressures. Food basket inflation leads the people in African households to cope with scarcity of food with educational investment of their children (Obibuba,2024) . These not only have physical and medical implications but the psychological implications as well. The similar cases have been observed in the Indian subcontinent region as well where the scenario has worsened with a disproportionate rise of income and educational expenses (Bhattacharjee, 2016). Food basket inflation impacts the foundational block of the society, i.e., the educational sector of the society. Inflation also significantly affects healthcare in low and middle income countries by driving up costs and reducing access. According to Uzor et al. (2024), inflation in Nigeria has driven significant increases in medicine prices, particularly in private pharmacies, due to currency devaluation and import dependence. This has led to reduced access and frequent stock-outs in public health facilities. Similar to this, Poongavanam et al. (2023) note that India’s healthcare system faces rising costs fueled by technology use and a growing chronic disease burden. To mitigate these effects, Uzor et al. (2024) recommend strengthening local drug production and expanding insurance in Nigeria, which also aligns with Poongavanam et al. (2023) call for cost control policies and investment in India’s primary healthcare infrastructure. Inflation also severely affects fundamental sectors such as education, housing, and healthcare in low- and middle-income countries. Food basket inflation drives African households to divert resources from children’s education to survival needs, leading to long-term psychological and developmental setbacks (Obibuba, 2024). Similar patterns emerge in the Indian subcontinent, where income stagnation and rising educational expenses deepen inequalities (Bhattacharjee, 2016). Inflation also strains healthcare systems. In Nigeria, it raises medicine prices due to currency devaluation and import dependency, leading to frequent public sector stock-outs (Uzor et al., 2024). India faces parallel challenges from technology-driven costs and chronic disease burdens (Poongavanam et al., 2023). Mitigation strategies include boosting local drug production and expanding insurance (Nigeria) and investing in primary healthcare (India). Additionally, in rural India and Nigeria, inflation in construction materials has made housing unaffordable for the poor, undermining dignity and health security (Chattopadhyay et al., 2022; Adebayo & Iweka, 2020). Impact of Inflation On Accessibility To Food Food is one of the basic necessities of life. The Constitution of India also includes the right to food in Article 21 i.e. right to life. But due to rising inflation in recent years, has resulted in soaring prices of food communities and this has impacted the accessibility of food mainly to the rural population. The data of the Ministry of Statistics and Implementation states that there has been an inflation of around 9.03% in December 2023, 9.10% in November 2024 and 8.56% in December 2024 (MoSPI 2024, CPI). This rise in inflation has led to a rise in the prices of food which has fueled the already dreaded issues like malnutrition, undernourishment and consistent health problems. India’s Global Hunger Index in 2024 stood at 27.3(Welt Hunger Hilfe, GHI 2024) which was classified as ‘serious’. Another reason for such inflation is rise in the crude oil prices, which shot up in 2021, after COVID-19. The main cause behind this was the recent rise of the market after a year of sluggishness during 2020. People have cut on their food intake to combat the effect of inflation. This has led to consumption of seriously nutrition-less foods. This has resulted in high levels of anemia in women and children at 57% and 63% respectively (MoHEW, NHFS-5 2019-21). A similar situation could be witnessed in Nigeria but the condition is far worse. With inflation
This study delves into the intricate dynamics of rural inflation in Indian context, emphasizing the influence of food price inflation, climatic variability, structural transformations, and fluctuations in wages on the living expenses faced by rural populations. The paper calls for a hybrid policy approach combining monetary tools with robust rural infrastructure, agricultural reforms, and inclusive growth strategies to effectively mitigate rural inflation and enhance the socio-economic conditions of marginalized communities.
“What sets India apart is its subtle, almost understated approach. Cultural diplomacy here has never quite resembled the glossy, image-driven strategies favoured by some Western nations.”
“India’s cultural ideals spread throughout Asia, establishing the foundation for what would eventually be known as cultural diplomacy.”
“Much of the existing literature is top-down… research is limited to understanding more about India’s cultural diplomacy at the grassroots level.”
“By projecting an image of a peaceful nation, one can achieve its goals with soft power only.”
“This is the age where narratives play a crucial role in a nation’s diplomacy.”
“Indian cinema serves as a first introduction to Indian society for foreigners, influencing how the world perceives the nation’s values.”
“Cuisine… remains one of the most accessible forms of cultural diplomacy.”
“These cultural expressions do more than celebrate heritage—they actively shape how the world perceives India.”
“Festivals… allow foreign audiences to experience Indian culture firsthand, often through food, music, dance, and rituals.”
“India’s soft power is an intricate blend of tradition, diplomacy, and education, shaping global perceptions through lived experiences.”
“The ‘Incredible India’ campaign… invites the world not merely to observe India but to experience it.”
“The Indian diaspora has emerged as a vital component of India’s cultural diplomacy.”
“Diasporic engagement contributes significantly to forming a positive narrative about India.”
Southeast Asia
“The Theravada Buddhist tradition, prevalent in Southeast Asia, traces its origins to India, strengthening cultural bonds.”
Africa
“India’s Pan-Africa e-Network Project has facilitated tele-education and telemedicine across the continent.”
US/UK
“Such multidimensional engagement ensures that Indian culture remains a vibrant and influential force in Western societies.”
“India’s cultural diplomacy needs to be evaluated at the grassroots level… and adapt to evolving narratives around identity, inclusion, and representation.”
The article interrogates how gender-based violence is being increasingly normalised through the mechanisms of influencers, algorithms, and online spaces, simultaneously calling upon viewers to be conscious of the content they consume and for inclusive content to stand against bias and support the promotion of gender equality.
The Troubling Rise of Realism over Institutionalism in the 21st Century offers a critical socio-political and economic analysis of the resurgence of realist thought in global affairs, challenging the cooperative ideals of institutionalism. Tracing the philosophical roots of realism from thinkers like Kautilya, Thucydides, and Machiavelli to modern scholars like Kenneth Waltz, the paper exposes realism’s emphasis on power, national interest, and anarchy. It contrasts this with institutionalism, which seeks global cooperation through bodies like the UN and WTO, grounded in liberal ideals from Kant and Locke.
The paper argue that recent global shifts—such as the return of Trump-era American foreign policy, increasing global nationalism, and reduced multilateral cooperation—signal a retreat from institutionalism. The erosion is visible in U.S. disengagement from WHO and WTO and rising bilateralism, especially with China and Russia’s opportunistic interventions in the Global South. This has profound implications for marginalized regions. Africa’s weakening health infrastructure, worsened by the sudden withdrawal of U.S. foreign aid, exemplifies the harsh cost of realist-driven policies.
A key critique is the Western-centric design of IR theories and institutions that fail to account for the realities of the Global South, where realism often translates into proxy wars and economic dependency. While realism prioritizes sovereignty and power, the paper calls for diplomatic eclecticism—drawing lessons from both realism and institutionalism—to effectively address modern crises like digital governance, climate change, and global health security.
The paper concludes by advocating a balanced path forward where institutions and cooperative frameworks remain relevant but are made more inclusive and responsive to changing geopolitical dynamics.
With the expansion of the gig economy post-2015 in India, millions have joined for employment. This article becomes relevant as it explores the working conditions, mental health, social inclusion, and the overlooked social aspects of ESG for future policy implementations.
INTRODUCTION In today’s hyper-connected world, digital technologies shape every aspect of our personal, economic, and political lives. From communication and banking to healthcare and critical infrastructure, nearly every sector relies on secure and stable digital systems. Yet, with these advancements come growing threats of cyberattacks, data breaches, misinformation, surveillance, and digital warfare. These threats do not respect national borders, and their impact can be devastating and far-reaching. As a result, cybersecurity has emerged as a top global priority, demanding robust and effective legal responses. It has become one of the most critical areas of concern for governments, businesses, and individuals across the world. As technology advances, so do the risks and threats to digital systems. Cyberattacks can target governments, critical infrastructure, hospitals, banks, and even personal devices. GLOBAL APPROACHES TO POLICY REGULATION Global legislative measures and compliance requirements in cybersecurity differ significantly across regions, reflecting varying regulatory philosophies, enforcement mechanisms, and national priorities. In the United States, cybersecurity regulation adopts a decentralised, sector-specific approach. This model provides flexibility for industries but also results in regulatory fragmentation. The Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA, 1986) is a foundational law addressing unauthorised access to computer systems. While pivotal, it has drawn criticism for being overly broad and outdated in an era of evolving cyber threats. Additionally, enforcement often falls under agencies like the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), which has played a central role in regulating cybersecurity through case law, as seen in FTC v. Wyndham Worldwide Corp. (2015), where the court held companies accountable for failing to implement reasonable cybersecurity practices. In contrast, the European Union has developed a more centralised and uniform regulatory framework. The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR, 2018) is one of the world’s most comprehensive data protection laws, setting strict standards for data processing, consent, and breach notification, along with significant penalties for non-compliance. Complementing GDPR, the Network and Information Systems Directive (NISD, 2018) establishes security and incident reporting requirements for operators of essential services and digital service providers. Key rulings like Schrems II (2020), which invalidated the EU-U.S. Privacy Shield over surveillance concerns, have further complicated transatlantic data transfers and highlighted the global impact of EU regulations. The Asia-Pacific region exhibits a diverse regulatory landscape shaped by differing national priorities. China’s Cybersecurity Law (2017) is marked by its emphasis on data localisation, governmental oversight, and control over cross-border data flows, reinforcing state cybersecurity sovereignty. In Japan, the Basic Act on Cybersecurity (2014, updated 2021) empowers the National Centre of Incident Readiness and Strategy for Cybersecurity (NISC) to lead national cybersecurity policy, fostering public-private cooperation. India follows a hybrid model: the Information Technology Act (2000) addresses cyber crimes like hacking and identity theft, while the newer Digital Personal Data Protection Act (2023) strengthens privacy rights but allows exceptions for state interests. India also prioritises critical digital infrastructure, such as Aadhaar and UPI. Australia’s Security of Critical Infrastructure Act (SOCI, 2018; amended 2021) mandates incident reporting and imposes obligations on operators of essential infrastructure to maintain cyber resilience. In South Africa, a blend of criminal and data privacy laws has emerged through the Cybercrimes Act (2020) and the Protection of Personal Information Act (POPIA, 2013), aiming to combat digital offences while safeguarding personal data. Judicial decisions continue to shape global cybersecurity norms. India’s Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015) invalidated Section 66A of the IT Act, reinforcing free speech protections online. In the UK, R v. Andrew Skelton (2018) clarified corporate liability for internal data breaches. In China, Qihoo 360 v. Tencent (2013) exposed tensions between cybersecurity regulation and market competition. International Legal Instruments The Budapest Convention (2001) is the leading international treaty on cybercrime, promoting the criminalisation of offences like hacking and fostering cross-border cooperation (Council of Europe, 2001). However, key countries like India, China, and Russia have not signed it. India cites sovereignty concerns but supports many of its principles. The UN promotes responsible state behaviour through forums like the GGE and OEWG, though these often lack binding outcomes. Regional efforts such as the African Union’s Malabo Convention and frameworks from the Arab League and SCO remain limited by weak enforcement. Legal Challenges in Cyber Governance and the Way Forward One of the biggest legal challenges in cybersecurity is the lack of a global, binding treaty. This leads to conflicting national laws and confusion over jurisdiction when cybercrimes cross borders. Traditional mechanisms like Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties (MLATs) are often too slow for fast-moving digital threats. Another issue is that laws struggle to keep pace with rapidly evolving technologies. Areas like AI, cyber warfare, blockchain, and cloud regulation present new risks that most legal systems are not yet prepared for To move forward, countries must harmonise key laws, improve cross-border cooperation, and build capacity through training and financial support. Public-private partnerships and awareness campaigns are also vital. Educational institutions should help train future legal and technical experts to ensure effective cybersecurity governance. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES OF CYBERSECURITY In today’s digital world, cybersecurity is no longer just a technical issue. It has become an economic, political, and social challenge. As data, infrastructure, and services go online, protecting them involves not just money but also smart policy, strong partnerships, and proper regulations. Three main issues define the economics of cybersecurity: limited resources and outdated technology, the growing role of public-private partnerships, and different regulations across countries. Many organisations, especially small businesses and government departments, cannot afford the latest security tools. They often rely on old systems that cannot defend against modern cyber threats. For example, the 2017 WannaCry ransomware attack hit outdated Microsoft systems and caused damage in over 150 countries, affecting hospitals, businesses, and governments. There’s also a shortage of skilled cybersecurity professionals. As threats become more advanced, the number of trained experts is not enough. This creates a gap between the threats we face and our ability to deal with them. Wealthy companies can afford better security, while smaller ones remain vulnerable, increasing the overall risk. To handle these challenges, governments and private companies are
