This paper examines how India’s rapidly expanding quick-commerce sector exposes gig delivery workers to occupational risks through algorithmic management and strict delivery timelines. It highlights unsafe working conditions, regulatory gaps, and proposes policy reforms to improve worker safety and platform accountability.

Abstract Refugee policy in India exists in a legal and moral paradox. Despite hosting thousands of displaced individuals, including the persecuted Rohingya from Myanmar, the country has no dedicated national asylum law is not a party to the 1951 Refugee Convention. The Rohingya crisis brings to light the consequences of this legal vacuum, i.e., statelessness, insecurity and inconsistent treatment under laws that fail to differentiate refugees from illegal migrants. India’s reliance on the Foreigners Act and Citizenship Act results in arbitrary detention, limited access to rights and deportation threats, even for UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) registered individuals. Judicial responses remain unpredictable, reflecting a broader policy shaped more by national interest than humanitarian need. This paper explores the intersection of statelessness, international obligations and domestic law, arguing for a structured legal framework that guarantees refugee protection while addressing genuine security concerns. A codified national asylum policy is not only a legal necessity but a test of India’s constitutional values and global leadership ambitions. Keywords: Refugee, Rohingya, Statelessness, Non-refoulement, Asylum Law, Human Rights, National Security, Displacement Introduction Refugees are those forced to leave their home country owing to persecution based on their race, religion, nationality, political beliefs, or social group participation (UNHCR, 1951). The Rohingya are predominantly Muslim and have resided in Buddhist Myanmar for decades. There are around 1.1 million Rohingya in Southeast Asian countries. They are not one of Myanmar’s 135 listed ethnic groups and have been denied citizenship rights since 1982, forcing them to depart their home country. (Al-Jazeera, 2018) India’s position on the Rohingya crisis has always been varied and multifaceted. The country has neither signed any international refugee conventions nor enacted a national asylum law (Yhome, 2016). Consequently, Rohingya refugees are treated as foreigners under domestic legislation, For instance, the Citizenship Act of 1955 and the Foreigners Act of 1946, recently amended in 2019, which apply directly to them (Nair, 2021). While India acknowledges the humanitarian dimension of the crisis, it has prioritized national security. As a result, the Rohingya remain caught in a web of borders, bureaucracy and brutality. In a nation that upholds the civilizational, Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam a ideal of “the world is one family”, the absence of a national refugee law speaks more profoundly than any proclaimed tradition of hospitality. To address the refugee issue effectively, a holistic strategy is essential, as refugees continue to face suspicion, surveillance and slow erasure. The paper examines the intersection between statelessness, human rights, and the legal gap in India’s refugee policy. Its objective is to advocate for the development of a robust and inclusive legal framework, incorporating measures such as resettling vulnerable refugees, providing safe spaces for asylum and supporting their integration through various initiatives in host countries (Lloyd College, Blog). The Legal Void India now has a greater need for comprehensive refugee laws because of the influx of displaced persons fleeing neighbouring countries including Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Tibet, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar. The absence of specific legal frameworks to address the difficulties faced by refugees creates a legal void that exposes them to a number of risks, including arbitrary detention, discrimination, prosecution, and obstacles to accessing essential services, even though India has a long history of welcoming migrants. Essential rights for refugees are guaranteed by the 1951 United Nations Refugee Convention.  India has a considerable Rohingya population, more than 46,000 have been officially recorded by the UNHCR but neither the 1951 Convention nor its 1967 Protocol has been signed.  This situation culminated in a significant event involving the deportation of unauthorized foreign nationals, including Rohingya, in 2017. In the Indian context, refugee governance falls under two legislative frameworks. The Foreigners Act 1946, with its most recent amendment in December 2018, confers considerable authority to the Government regarding the regulation of foreigners’ entry and stay. Additionally, the Citizenship Act of 1955, modified in 2019, establishes religious affiliation as a criterion for Indian citizenship for refugees present in the nation. (Shreya Mishra, 2024) Despite numerous Rohingya possessing refugee documentation and UNHCR registration, the Indian authorities do not officially acknowledge their refugee status or provide protection. Consequently, these individuals face perpetual vulnerability to detention or deportation and are denied access to fundamental rights. The manifestations of discriminatory practices against refugees and preferential aid have revealed an arbitrary interpretation of the non-refoulement principle. Since determinations made outside a structured legal framework tend to be arbitrary, unclear, and predominantly shaped by strategic and geopolitical considerations rather than humanitarian imperatives. This unsystematic methodology has resulted in inequitable, erratic and inconsistent handling of Rohingya. (Rajan, 2022) Without a thorough framework for determining refugee status, authorities struggle to distinguish between people trying to enter the country illegally and genuine refugees in need of protection. Inadequate vetting procedures place India at considerable risk of infiltration by persons with harmful intentions, creating serious national security vulnerabilities. Consequently, the lack of a thorough legislative structure governing refugee movements raises the critical issue of how the nation can appropriately balance protecting its national security interests while fulfilling its humanitarian obligations toward refugees. The implications of an absence of thorough refugee legislation are substantial. Undocumented refugees experience heightened susceptibility to human rights infringements, while judicial bodies issue inconsistent decisions owing to legislative ambiguity. Concurrently, the state confronts challenges about security, population disparities, and resource depletion in receiving communities. Additionally, refugees become susceptible to mistreatment, exploitation, and illicit trafficking. The deficiency in refugee statutes also generates national security apprehensions. Furthermore, India’s international standing suffers due to the lack of comprehensive refugee regulations. The nation’s non-adherence to global refugee conventions remains a source of concern within the international sphere.  (Debbarma, 2024) Statelessness and Security Concerns The Rohingya problem is a result of decades of statelessness and persecution in Myanmar, which are rooted in the 1982 Citizenship Law that denies the rohingya their legal identity and rights by excluding them from recognized ethnic groups. Large numbers of people were displaced as a result of military operations, crackdowns, and systematic discrimination. Their movement has been used as an excuse for

Keywords: Rural Inflation, Poverty, Cost of living, Basic amenities, Healthcare access, Food Insecurity, Education affordability, Housing crises, India and Nigeria, Low-income households The Impact of Inflation on Access to Basic Amenities in Rural Communities: A Comparative Study of Nigeria and India Introduction Inflation in rural areas has emerged as a critical global concern in contemporary times, significantly affecting the well-being and resilience of rural households. As the prices of basic necessities continue to surge, rural families are finding it increasingly difficult to meet their daily needs, especially in the essential areas of food, housing, education, and healthcare. These four pillars, which form the backbone of human development, are being eroded by persistent inflation, threatening the very fabric of rural life. One of the most pressing issues is the intersection of food basket inflation and limited employment opportunities. The rising cost of staple foods, coupled with stagnating or informal income sources, has created a severe resource deficit in rural households. This financial strain forces families to make harsh trade-offs, such as choosing between nutritious meals and medical care, or between school fees and house repairs, thereby compounding their vulnerability. Compared to their urban counterparts, rural households are disproportionately affected. Factors such as lower per capita income, limited access to technology, poor infrastructure, and fewer formal employment opportunities widen the rural-urban divide. While urban residents may have relatively better access to social safety nets or diversified income streams, rural populations often lack the institutional and economic buffers needed to withstand prolonged inflationary shocks. Literature Review Food inflation poses a critical challenge to rural households’ food security in both Nigeria and India. In Nigeria, rising food prices severely impact household access to sufficient, nutritious food, leading to decreased dietary diversity and increased vulnerability to economic shocks, especially among rural communities that rely heavily on agriculture and limited market access (Anugwa & Ugwu, 2022). Similarly, in India, food inflation reaching 10.9% in 2024 has intensified the financial burden on rural families, where over half of income is spent on food, resulting in limited accessibility and negative health outcomes like malnutrition and anemia. Factors such as global commodity prices, crop focus on staples, and supply chain inefficiencies aggravate the situation (Fathima, 2024). Both contexts underline the urgent need for long-term interventions, including improving agricultural productivity, crop diversification, strengthened supply chains, and effective social support systems like cash transfers and efficient Public Distribution Systems, to enhance food security and rural resilience to inflationary pressures. Food basket inflation leads the people in African households to cope with scarcity of food with educational investment of their children (Obibuba,2024) . These not only have physical and medical implications but the psychological implications as well. The similar cases have been observed in the Indian subcontinent region as well where the scenario has worsened with a disproportionate rise of income and educational expenses (Bhattacharjee, 2016). Food basket inflation impacts the foundational block of the society, i.e., the educational sector of the society. Inflation also significantly affects healthcare in low and middle income countries by driving up costs and reducing access. According to Uzor et al. (2024), inflation in Nigeria has driven significant increases in medicine prices, particularly in private pharmacies, due to currency devaluation and import dependence. This has led to reduced access and frequent stock-outs in public health facilities. Similar to this, Poongavanam et al. (2023) note that India’s healthcare system faces rising costs fueled by technology use and a growing chronic disease burden. To mitigate these effects, Uzor et al. (2024) recommend strengthening local drug production and expanding insurance in Nigeria, which also aligns with Poongavanam et al. (2023) call for cost control policies and investment in India’s primary healthcare infrastructure. Inflation also severely affects fundamental sectors such as education, housing, and healthcare in low- and middle-income countries. Food basket inflation drives African households to divert resources from children’s education to survival needs, leading to long-term psychological and developmental setbacks (Obibuba, 2024). Similar patterns emerge in the Indian subcontinent, where income stagnation and rising educational expenses deepen inequalities (Bhattacharjee, 2016). Inflation also strains healthcare systems. In Nigeria, it raises medicine prices due to currency devaluation and import dependency, leading to frequent public sector stock-outs (Uzor et al., 2024). India faces parallel challenges from technology-driven costs and chronic disease burdens (Poongavanam et al., 2023). Mitigation strategies include boosting local drug production and expanding insurance (Nigeria) and investing in primary healthcare (India). Additionally, in rural India and Nigeria, inflation in construction materials has made housing unaffordable for the poor, undermining dignity and health security (Chattopadhyay et al., 2022; Adebayo & Iweka, 2020). Impact of Inflation On Accessibility To Food Food is one of the basic necessities of life. The Constitution of India also includes the right to food in Article 21 i.e. right to life. But due to rising inflation in recent years, has resulted in soaring prices of food communities and this has impacted the accessibility of food mainly to the rural population. The data of the Ministry of Statistics and Implementation states that there has been an inflation of around 9.03% in December 2023, 9.10% in November 2024 and 8.56% in December 2024 (MoSPI 2024, CPI). This rise in inflation has led to a rise in the prices of food which has fueled the already dreaded issues like malnutrition, undernourishment and consistent health problems. India’s Global Hunger Index in 2024 stood at 27.3(Welt Hunger Hilfe, GHI 2024) which was classified as ‘serious’. Another reason for such inflation is rise in the crude oil prices, which shot up in 2021, after COVID-19. The main cause behind this was the recent rise of the market after a year of sluggishness during 2020. People have cut on their food intake to combat the effect of inflation. This has led to consumption of seriously nutrition-less foods. This has resulted in high levels of anemia in women and children at 57% and 63% respectively (MoHEW, NHFS-5 2019-21). A similar situation could be witnessed in Nigeria but the condition is far worse. With inflation