Authors:

Nishtha Kohli, Jasjyot Singh, Mansi Singh, Manan Karan Sharma, Vershmia Paul Ikoamo, Ojas Vijayavargeeya

Abstract

Plastic, a part of our everyday life has slowly engulfed the entire environment susceptible to disease, especially the marine ecosystem. Here the prominent disease carriers are the minute, tiny form of plastic, only micro and micro. Aquatic ecosystem have been found at the epicentre of pollution, owing to human activities of throwing macro waste (plastic polythene) into water bodies, which in turn transform into microplastics, it threatens the very existence of our robust marine environment due to cells and tissue damage, oxidative stress in marine inhabitants. This manifests even greatly in humans through biomagnification, leaving a greater risk of health hazards. The following paper will review the multivarious and unique prospects of aquatic plastic pollution and their ‘evidence-based’ solutions.

1. Introduction

Micro and macroplastic contamination in aquatic environments has emerged as a critical issue in environmental science due to its persistence, widespread distribution, and potential ecological consequences. Macroplastics, commonly defined as plastic debris larger than 5 mm, include items such as bottles, bags, fishing gear, and packaging materials that enter water bodies through urban runoff, wastewater discharge, industrial activities, and improper waste disposal. Over time, these larger plastic items undergo fragmentation through physical abrasion, ultraviolet radiation, and chemical weathering, generating secondary microplastics, which are typically defined as particles smaller than 5 mm. In addition, primary microplastics are directly released into aquatic systems from sources such as cosmetics, synthetic textiles, and industrial processes.

The presence of both micro and macroplastics in rivers, lakes, estuaries, and marine systems raises serious concerns regarding environmental quality and food web integrity. Plastic particles can be ingested by aquatic organisms, act as vectors for toxic contaminants, and alter habitat structure and ecosystem function. Consequently, accurate analysis and detection are essential for assessing contamination levels, identifying pollution sources, and informing mitigation strategies. Current approaches include visual surveys and net based sampling for macroplastics, alongside filtration, microscopy, and spectroscopic methods such as FTIR and Raman spectroscopy for microplastic characterization. However, methodological inconsistency remains a major challenge, underscoring the need for standardized and robust analytical frameworks.

Plastic pollution has become one of the most pressing environmental issues affecting global health. Plastics are synthetic, ubiquitous, and non-biodegradable compounds that tend to accumulate in the environment. Although it is difficult to provide precise estimates of annual plastic pollution due to variability among sources, an exponential increase in production has been observed over recent decades from 2 million metric tons (MT) in 1950 to nearly 450 million MT currently. If this trend continues, global production is projected to reach approximately 13 billion MT by 2050. Of all the plastic produced, 9% is recycled, 12% is incinerated, and the remaining 79% accumulates in landfills and aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. These values are particularly concerning: an estimated 4.8 to 12.7 million MT of plastic end up in marine ecosystems, while around 1.5 million MT accumulate in terrestrial environments. Moreover, it is projected that, by 2050, nearly 70 million MT of plastic will be released into the environment.

Plastic accumulation in aquatic environments (AEs) has shown to generate multiple environmental hazards [1], such as the ingestion of microplastic particles by plankton and fish, or the entanglement of marine macrofauna with macroplastics – MPs [2], especially fishing nets [3]. Considering that plastic debris cannot be processed by the ocean, the accumulation of this inorganic material is rapidly increasing [4]. In fact, recent studies reveal that 13 million metric tons of plastic are released into the ocean annually [5] and a report published by UNEP suggests this value could double by 2030 if rapid and robust actions are not enforced soon [8]. As a consequence, the scientific literature has already identified that over 1400 marine species have been affected by marine plastic [6,7], and there is increasing evidence that humans are exposed to an ever-growing cocktail of micro- and nanoplastics that are either being inhaled or ingested in their daily lives.

2. Literature review

 2.1 Plastic pollution in aquatic environments

Plastic pollution in aquatic environments has become a cross system problem spanning rivers, lakes, estuaries, coasts, open oceans, sediments, and food webs [9]. Studies now treats plastic pollution as a continuum rather than a strictly marine issue, because plastics are transported from land through freshwater networks into estuarine and marine environments, with retention, remobilization, and fragmentation occurring along the way [9]. Studies distinguish larger debris from microplastics, commonly defined as particles smaller than 5 mm, and increasingly note concern about nanoplastics because their behavior, detection, and toxicology are harder to resolve.

[9] points to diverse and diffuse sources. Land based inputs include wastewater effluent, urban runoff, agricultural drainage, household and industrial products, and fragmentation of larger plastic waste, while sea based inputs include shipping and fisheries. Once in aquatic systems, transport and fate depend on particle size, density, shape, surface chemistry, hydrodynamics, aggregation, and biofouling [10]. [11] explain why plastics are reported not only in surface waters but also in sediments and organisms, and why concentrations vary strongly across sites and studies.

The ecological effects discussed in the review literature operate at several scales. Macroplastic debris can cause entanglement, suffocation, starvation, habitat alteration, and transport of invasive organisms [11]. Microplastics add a different set of concerns: they are ingested by organisms across trophic levels, may accumulate transiently in tissues or digestive systems, and can trigger physical stress and sublethal biological effects [11] Finding from previous studies emphasize that particle properties matter. Size, shape, and surface characteristics influence uptake, retention, and biological response, which makes “microplastics” too broad a category for simple generalization [9]. [11] identified that plastics can sorb or carry other contaminants, including hydrophobic organic chemicals and metals, potentially altering exposure pathways in aquatic organisms.

The human health discussion is more tentative than the ecological one. Reviews argue that seafood and drinking water are plausible exposure routes, with shellfish and other organisms eaten whole presenting particular concern [12]. However, the evidence base for direct human harm remains limited, and most authors stress uncertainty around environmentally realistic doses, particle properties, and chronic exposure effects [9]. This caution is important because the field sometimes moves faster in hazard identification than in robust risk characterization.

2.2 Classification of Plastic Debris

Microplastics and nanoplastics are tiny pieces of synthetic polymers (plastics), found in the environment (including fresh and seawater, sediments, biota, soils, and ambient air) as well as in drinking water and food, and therefore are recognized as emerging particulate anthropogenic pollutants. The term microplastics was introduced by [15] to report on small plastic fragments in marine environment.

Particles of plastics are often categorized according to their size. Macroplastics, mesoplastics, microplastics, and nanoplastics are plastic particles with size diameter range that are >200 mm, 4.76–200 mm, 0.01 μm–1 mm, and less than 0.1 μm, respectively [13]. However [14] , categorize plastic particles as macroplastics (>1 cm), mesoplastics (1–<10 mm), microplastics (1–<1,000 μm), and nanoplastics (1–<1,000 nm). Although there is no consensus on categorizing plastic particles, in this manuscript, microplastics (MPs) are regarded as the category of plastics with a diameter of 1 nm–<5 mm, and nanoplastics (NPs) are characterized as plastic particles having a lower size less than 1 nm.

Microplastics which are classified into primary and secondary based on their sources are considered as an emerging persistent micropollutant threatening our global aquatic and terrestrial environments. While primary microplastics are originally manufactured for use in cosmetics, toothpaste, or pharmaceutical drugs, secondary microplastics, on the other hand, exist from the degradation of larger plastics into smaller pieces under different chemical, physical, and biological conditions.

2.3 Sources of Plastic Contamination in Water Bodies

Recent writings have shown that polymers like polyethylene can contaminate aquatic ecosystems and put them in today’s vulnerable state knowing for their persistent nature, they may remain for a long era, and they are durable. So, it helps to know where they came from, like how what once was considered a major nuisance in oceans is now turning into setbacks for nearly all kinds of water systems, including wetlands, glaciers, lakes, and even groundwater systems. Since it is durable and not easily degradable, eventually it disintegrates into microplastics and nanoplastics, and these move readily through aquatic ecosystems. A major source of plastic contamination is improper disposal of waste and inadequate waste management systems. In significant places, common items such as plastic bags, bottles, and similar things end up being thrown away or disposed of without much care, leading these plastics to then get transported to rivers, streams, and lakes through surface runoff as well as wind and rain actions. This makes improper disposal of wastes among the most significant sources of plastic pollution in water ecosystems [16]. Urbanization also worsens the situation. During rain events, plastic pollution that gathers on roads, around markets, and near residential areas is drained into storm drain systems, and then it can finally make its way into rivers and lakes. Beyond the visible plastic, some less noticeable contaminants are also carried into waterways—like tire-wear particles and, yes, even cigarette filters, which are both major sources of microplastic pollution. Discharge from wastewater is another important pathway for microplastics.

Industrial activities are another main cause of contamination. As seen in October 2023, We seen plastic manufacturing and recycling facilities dumping plastic pellets called “nurdles” as well as other industrial plastic debris. In places with weak or poorly enforced environmental regulations, these pollutants find their way into nearby rivers and streams, which then contribute to the plastic pollution load [17]. Notably, even agriculture is an identified source of plastic waste. Farmers increasingly rely on plastic mulch films, greenhouse coverings, irrigation pipes—and even fertilizer packaging. A heck of a lot of plastic material is in agricultural environments. Degradable microplastics and nanoplastics are transferred to water bodies through soil erosion and surface runoff as these materials degrade [9]. Atmospheric deposition is also recognized to be an important pathway for plastics, and recent work has classified atmospheric deposition as a major contributor of plastic pollution. Microplastics can be emitted into the air and be transported long distances before settling back to Earth as rain or snow. This mechanism provides the reasons why even most remote areas, like glaciers and mountain ecosystems, are dominated by plastic particles, including regions that have limited human activity [18,19]. Apart from the major sources of plastic contamination discussed above, a few smaller sources have been drawing attention recently. Such sources include synthetic textile fibers released when washing clothes and particles of worn tires and roads, as well as plastic waste; paint and coating degradation from infrastructure and vessels; landfill leachate; and plastic waste from fishing, aquaculture, and shipping, which are also sources of concern. Besides, tourism and recreational activities can also lead to the accumulation of plastics in very sensitive aquatic environments. [20,21,22].

2.4 TRANSPORT AND PUBLIC DISTRIBUTION OF PLASTICS IN AQUATIC SYSTEMS

Plastic pollution in aquatic systems has become a serious environmental issue because plastics are now found in rivers, lakes, estuaries, and oceans, where they move through water, sediments, and living organisms. Recent studies show that plastics enter water bodies mainly from land-based sources such as urban runoff, wastewater, stormwater, and mismanaged waste, and rivers act as the main pathways carrying them toward the sea.[23].

A major trend in recent literature is that plastic transport is not uniform. Instead, it depends on particle size, shape, density, and environmental conditions. Smaller particles like microplastics can stay suspended in the water column for long periods, while heavier fragments may settle in sediments or become trapped in riverbanks and vegetation. This means that plastics are not only a surface-water problem; they are distributed across the whole aquatic system, including the bottom of rivers and coastal zones.[24].

Recent reviews also show that rivers do not simply deliver plastics to the ocean in a straight flow. Plastic can be stored temporarily in riverbeds, floodplains, and slow-moving sections, and then remobilized during floods and heavy rainfall. This makes extreme weather events important in plastic transport, because storms can suddenly move large amounts of debris downstream. In this way, climate and hydrology strongly affect where plastics accumulate and how fast they move.[25].

Another important finding is the role of biofouling and aggregation. Once plastics stay in water long enough, microorganisms and organic matter can attach to them, changing their density and causing them to sink or resurface later. Plastics can also mix with suspended sediments and natural particles, which changes their movement and makes detection and monitoring more difficult. Because of this, the actual distribution of plastics in water often differs from what models predict.[26].

Research from 2021 onward also emphasizes that macroplastics are still under-studied compared with microplastics, especially along the full length of rivers. Most field studies focus on lower river zones or river mouths, but recent work argues that the upper and middle river sections are also important because they can act as both transport zones and storage zones. This is important for public distribution studies, because it shows that plastic pollution is spread unevenly and can affect communities far from the coast.[25].

In conclusion, the recent literature shows that plastics in aquatic systems are transported by runoff, rivers, currents, floods, and sediment interactions, while also being stored in different parts of the water environment. The main research gap is still the lack of standardized monitoring across entire river systems, especially in developing regions. A better understanding of transport pathways will help improve pollution control and cleanup strategies.[27].

2.5 Physical and Chemical properties of Environmental Plastic

Multivarious components of plastics, even at the Nano level are found as a part of our nature, though with great degree of heterogeneity based on densities and textures. The ultimate properties governing the micro level differentiability of microplastics can be narrowed down to the particle density, shape and size. Density is the most dominant factor which influence the deposition of environmental plastic, their reaction to surroundings and breakdown. For example, high density microplastics are more likely to settle at the surface of aquatic bodies, wherein those with low density may keep going with the flow. Microplastics can also be distinguished based upon their structural formation, such as pellets, fibres, filaments, fragments etc. Their varied,  often demorphed shapes vary directly with their degradation.[28].

Environmental plastics, a modern day anthropogenic menace, harms the environment through another facet- one that is characterised by more dynamism than its counterpart- chemical properties. The composition of plastics depend upon a chain of polymers. This molecular structure of plastic is obtained through various sets of synthetic plastics being cross-blended to achieve the required product. In addition, many plastics are affected by a chemical change in these physical properties through a major degradation by micro-organisms. But, as the world went through the cycle of development and technology, it evolved with itself low cost, more harmful synthetic  plastics, resulting in their bio degradation making their assimilation into nature a mammoth task. Another interesting and equally bothering point surfaces due to the presence of additive, an add on to the plastic property making it more resistant to colour change, UV radiation, etc. These additives have a multi-pronged (gene like) property, they alter the density of microplastics, affecting their floating capability and deposition in river beds. However, our natural phenomena called weathering- referring to either a change in the appearance and sometimes change in physical, chemical and biological properties of natural, synthetic objects. The most prominent agent of plastic weathering is ultraviolet radiation from sunlight. It is also been seen and revealed that actions of certain specific bacteria play a pivotal role in microplastics breakdown though remains last in the environment.[29].

Deep diving further into the physical and chemical properties of the environmental hazards, another less discussed aspect is the role of Biomagnification- process through which environmental toxins such as plastics reach the summit of Tropic level that is humans. It act as a pollutant harbour in the form of organic pollutant absorption. Additionally, once ingested these microplastics get broken down into smaller more, hazardous nano plastics.[30].

2.6 Sampling Techniques for Plastics Detection in Water Bodies

The reliability of plastic pollution studies largely depends on the sampling techniques employed during sample collection. Appropriate sampling methods ensure representative data on the occurrence, abundance, and distribution of both macroplastics and microplastics within aquatic ecosystems. The choice of sampling technique is influenced by factors such as the size of plastic particles, characteristics of the water body, sampling objectives, and available analytical resources.

2.6.1  Surface Water Sampling

Surface water sampling is one of the most frequently used approaches for detecting plastics in aquatic environments. This technique involves collecting water from the upper layer of rivers, lakes, reservoirs, estuaries, and oceans where plastic debris tends to accumulate due to buoyancy. Water samples are commonly collected using stainless steel containers, glass bottles, or specialized water samplers to avoid contamination from plastic equipment. The collected samples are subsequently filtered to isolate plastic particles for laboratory analysis [31].

2.6.2 Net-Based Sampling

Net-based sampling is widely applied for the collection of floating plastics, particularly microplastics. Specialized nets such as manta nets, neuston nets, and plankton nets are towed across the water surface for a specified distance or duration. These nets possess mesh sizes ranging from approximately 20 µm to 500 µm depending on the target particle size. As water passes through the net, plastic particles are retained in a collection chamber for further examination. This method is highly effective for monitoring floating plastic debris over large surface areas; however, it may underestimate the abundance of smaller particles that can pass through the mesh openings [32].

2.6.3 Grab Sampling Technique

Grab sampling involves the direct collection of water samples at specific locations and depths using sampling bottles or water samplers. The technique provides a snapshot of plastic contamination at a particular point in time and is especially useful for freshwater systems where the deployment of nets may be impractical. Grab sampling allows for the collection of both suspended and smaller-sized plastic particles, making it suitable for quantitative microplastic analysis. Nevertheless, the relatively small sample volume may limit the detection of low-abundance plastics [31].

2.6.4 Pump Filtration Sampling

Pump filtration systems have become increasingly popular for microplastic investigations. In this approach, a known volume of water is pumped through a series of filters with defined pore sizes. Plastic particles retained on the filters are subsequently recovered and analyzed. This technique permits the processing of large water volumes and enhances the detection of smaller microplastic particles that may be missed by conventional net sampling. Furthermore, pump filtration can be employed at different water depths, thereby providing a more comprehensive assessment of plastic distribution within the water column. [33].

2.6.5 Sediment-Associated Sampling

Although plastic contamination studies primarily focus on water samples, plastics often accumulate in bottom sediments due to weathering, biofouling, and increased density. Sediment-associated sampling involves collecting sediment samples using grab samplers, corers, or dredges. The extracted sediments are then subjected to density separation and filtration procedures to recover embedded plastic particles. This method is valuable for understanding the long-term accumulation and environmental fate of plastics in aquatic ecosystems[34].

2.6.6 Shoreline and Macroplastic Surveys

For macroplastic assessment, shoreline surveys are commonly conducted using transect and quadrat sampling methods. Researchers establish predefined survey areas along the shoreline and systematically collect visible plastic debris. The collected materials are sorted, counted, weighed, and classified according to their source and type. Shoreline surveys provide important information regarding the sources, composition, and accumulation patterns of larger plastic wastes entering aquatic environments [8].

2.6.7 Quality Control During Sampling

To minimize contamination during sampling, strict quality assurance measures should be implemented. Sampling equipment should be thoroughly cleaned before use, and plastic materials should be avoided whenever possible. Glass or metal containers are generally preferred. Field blanks and procedural blanks are often included to identify potential contamination from airborne fibers and laboratory handling. Additionally, personnel are encouraged to wear natural-fiber clothing during sample collection and processing to reduce the introduction of synthetic fibers into samples [35].

In conclusion, the selection of an appropriate sampling technique is essential for obtaining reliable data on plastic contamination in water bodies. Combining multiple sampling approaches often provides a more comprehensive understanding of the occurrence, distribution, and characteristics of plastic pollutants within aquatic environments.

2.7 Spectroscopic Techniques For Polymer Identification

Spectroscopic techniques are used to investigate the structure, physical and chemical properties, and reaction of polymer.[36]. It measures and analyse how light is absorbed, emitted, or scattered by substances.[37]. It involves spectroscopy in Ultraviolet (UV),  Visible and Infrared (IR) region. UV spectroscopy is used less as compared to Infrared spectroscopy and Visible Spectroscopy is typically only used as ancillary tool in polymer studies.[36].

The most effective and commonly used spectroscopic techniques for identifying polymer composition of microplastics and macro plastics are:

Fourier Transformation Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

It is highly recommended and widely used techniques for chemical characterization of microplastics, followed by Raman spectroscopy in terms of importance. Microplastics are detected by stimulating molecular vibrations with infrared spectrum. The presence of microplastics in water bodies can be detected at a particular unique infrared spectrum.[39].  FTIR is highly restricted by limited infrared transparency of conventional filter materials. This limitation can be overcome by novel silicon filter substrate.[38].  Diverse FTIR techniques such as attenuated total reflection FTIR (ATR-FTIR) and micro ATR-FTIR can detect polypropylene(PP), polyethylene(PE), polystyrene(PS), and polyethylene terephthalate(PET)  particles in aquatic sediments.[40].

Raman Spectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy present molecular fingerprint spectrum, which is based on polarity of chemical bonds.[39]. This technique use inelastic scattering of light where frequency shift identify the roto-vibrational excitations for molecules. The spectroscopy technique such as micro FTIR and micro Raman can define the composition of micro and macro plastics without destroying the sample and that is one of the advantage of these techniques.[41]. Advancement in Raman spectroscopy such as Raman Tweezers and surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) allow more accurate detection of micro and microplastics in diverse environmental water samples.[38].

Near Infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy

NIR Spectroscopy is widely used as non-destructive, accurate and in suit, analytical and structural probe of polymer.[42]. NIR determine hydroxyl number, water content and residual carbon carbon double bonds. It allows online analysis and quality control using NIR Light Fiber optic spectroscopy.[36]. Hyperspectral imaging (NIR-HIS), Short Wave Infrared (NIR-SWIR) regions are advancement in the NIR to identify micro and microplastics diverse matrices.[43].

Laser Direct Infrared (LDIR) Chemical Imaging

LDIR imaging is a transformative tool, surpassing Raman spectroscopy  and FTIR spectroscopy with its highly accurate and speedy capabilities. It is powered by Quantum Cascade Laser (QCL), which offers high magnification visible camera capability to detect micro and micro polymer particles in water bodies. It is significant because of its rapid scanning, automation and imaging of large area which reduce time required for analyse and enrich efficiency.[44]

 2.8 Remote Sensing and Imaging Technologies in Macroplastic Detection

Since  2020, remote sensing and imaging techniques based on AI Modelling have advanced rapidly as scalable alternatives to traditional field acoustic surveys, conventional altimetry and visual counting methods for detecting large plastic debris in water. Before this period, monitoring plastic litter relied mainly on manual field surveys, which had a lack of spatiotemporal scalability/accuracy. The shift towards remote sensing in sea-plastic detection began with the development of camera and sensor systems based on off ground platform systems to capture images and color information of floating plastics [45].

Foundational work to establish validation approaches for satellite-based detection included multi-year field experiments that combined satellite imagery from Sentinel-2 (10-meter resolution) with high-resolution aerial images from drones. These studies showed that under good lighting conditions, satellite systems could detect plastic bottles even when they filled less than 40% of one satellite pixel. This set important detection limits for practical monitoring [46].

As a result of this validation work, the automated detection methods based on machine learning made significant improvements from 2020 through 2024. Machine learning has been adopted more and more since around 2020 but manual checking and rule-based approaches are still common due to the complexity of different litter types and shapes [47]. In a major leap forward in October 2024, humanity was able to identify floating macroplastics that could be distinguished from seaweed in Sentinel-2 satellite images for the first time. [48].

Using a mathematical index called the Floating Debris Index (FDI) combined with a Naive Bayes machine learning algorithm across three coastal study sites in Brazil, the study achieved 87.25% accuracy in identifying suspected plastics. The method could detect plastic at scales smaller than individual pixels, revealing macroplastics mixed with seaweed and sea foam [48].

Automated detection systems integrating Sentinel-2 imagery with two machine learning models, Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Random Forest (RF), showed 80-90% detection accuracy in additional tests conducted in coastal waters around Greece, Cyprus, Italy and Lebanon. Random Forest consistently outperformed SVM, showing higher accuracy and more consistent results in classifying plastic pixels [49]. Adding to satellite methods, drone-based imaging near Tharangambadi, Tamil Nadu, India in

2024 used special hyperspectral cameras (measuring light across many wavelengths from 400–1000 nanometres) that showed strong agreement with light measurements taken on the ground, supporting satellite validation in tropical regions that have been under-represented in research [50].

Subsequent studies have proven fluctuation in quantification measures  like litter-covered area, volume, weight, and item count per unit area, which impedes cross-study comparisons and data harmonization. Though no agreement on consistent procedures across platforms and places exists, it has been widely accepted that trash-covered area and item count per unit area are most appropriate for cross-platform comparison [47].

Important research gaps found in the past decade include lack of standardized quantification methods; coarse satellite resolution restricting detection in small water bodies; insufficient benchmark datasets for deep learning model training; eurocentric geographic bias, with tropical areas understudied; environmental disturbance from glint, foam, seaweed, and biofouling lowering detection performance [51,45]. Though promising, most machine learning and deep learning techniques still remain in an infancy stage in terms of accuracy and detail compared to visual monitoring, according to researchers [45].

Evitably, this field of study and action urgently requires methodological standardization, development of high-resolution sensors, and real-time processing pipelines to enable operational monitoring of plastic transport from land to ocean globally [47,50].  

2.9 Environmental and Ecological Impacts of Plastic Contamination

Today, the world produces a remarkable amount of plastic waste as a result of mismanagement, unproductive waste management techniques, and their continuous release [52]. It is estimated that the world has released around 5800 Mt of mismanaged plastic waste into the environment by the end of 2015 [53]. These plastics remain in the environment for a long time/over centuries due to their stability, durability, and their recalcitrant nature to biodegradation, followed by high molecular weight, complex 3D structure, and hydrophobic nature [54],[55]. Plastics undergo different weathering processes in the environment, such as photodegradation, thermal oxidation, hydrolysis, biodegradation, and fragmentation [56,57]. However, the ubiquitous presence of plastics spans diverse ecosystems, from deserts to farms, and mountaintops to oceans [58,59].

Plastics in terrestrial and marine environments:

Since plastics are mainly manufactured, used, and disposed of on land, a high amount of waste accumulates in the terrestrial environment [60]. For example, agricultural plastics such as polytunnel plastic films, wrappings, and packing materials are highly available as plastic wastes. Those plastic particles break into microplastics and have the ability to remain in the soil for up to 15 years. In addition, illegal dumping activity and direct input of waste increase plastic accumulation on land [60]. The terrestrial environment can act as a plastic sink and bare them up to a certain level . Human/anthropogenic, wind (aeolian), and water (fluvial) activities transport plastic litter. Apart from land, freshwater systems such as rivers, dams, lakes, and urban drainage networks have been surpassed by plastic debris [61].

Physical and chemical impacts:

Animals like reptiles (e.g., mostly snakes) and birds can be trapped by plastic nets (commonly applied in farm fields, gardens, and aquatic farms) [62,63,64]. Animals may encounter plastics (mainly microplastics) in various environmental settings, resulting in ingestion. Accordingly, the accumulation of plastics in digestion systems causes several health issues for ruminants camel, goat, and sheep, such as internal injuries, blocking of the intestinal tract or gastric enzyme secretion, diminished feeding stimulus, failure to absorb volatile fatty acids , reduction of animal fattening, and lowering of steroid hormone levels [65,60]. Therefore, plastic ingestion significantly influences feeding behavior. In marine environments, plastic debris reduces the lighting and oxygen levels of underlying water, and this reduces the biodiversity of marine habits [66]. Ocean currents transport plastic from fishing gear, nets, and other plastic substances to shallow habitats and then damage and degrade coral reefs [67]. The blanketing effect of plastic sheeting causes anoxia and hypoxia.

Chemicals associated with plastic such as, bisphenol A, phthalates, and heavy meals, can accumulate on organisms through food webs, and it causes negative impacts like oxidative stress, cancer, and endocrine disruption [68]. The leaching rates of plastic-related chemicals are high in marine environments due to ultraviolet radiation (UV) breakdown, weathering, and mechanical forces [69]. These chemicals first leach into the environment/seawater and then reach biota by ingestion. For example, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) enter the food chains and lead to reproduction disorders or even death [64,66]. These physical and chemical impacts lead to biological impacts.

Biological impacts:

Microplastics can cause biological impacts on living organisms by controlling their growth, reproduction ability, and long-term toxicity [70]. Microplastics derive from Polyvinyl chlorine (PVC) disturb growth, oxidative damage, oviposition, and biological enzyme activity [71]. [72] identified biological impacts on lugworms due to the incorporation of microplastics and additives into their gut tissues. In addition, insects like Culex mosquitoes show adverse interactions with microplastics [60]. Microplastics also cause energy and lipid metabolism disorders and oxidative stress in mice.

According to the literature data, plastic debris globally affects many marine species, including about 43 % of marine animals, 44 % of seabirds, and 86 % of sea turtles and various fish and crustacean species [73]. The major biological impacts of plastic waste in marine and other aquatic environments can be summarized as ingesting, entangling, impaired movement, habitat loss and feeding, low reproduction, ulcer, laceration, and finally, death [74,75]. For example, ingesting causes internal blockages and injuries, low stomach capacity, and hinders growth. Entangling results in strangulation, reduction of feeding efficiency, and some cases drowning. Oceanic turtles consume floating plastic debris including plastic bags due to a misunderstanding of those as their gelatinous prey/jellyfish which is the primary food source of sea turtles [66]. Seabirds eat various types of plastic debris including balloons, plastic pellets, and hard bits of plastic by thinking of food. Accordingly, low body weight, inhibited fat deposition, reduced reproductive ability, low fitness, and digestive system damage are the main problems associated with seabirds [66,76].

Microplastics resemble phytoplankton and sometimes plastics mix with the desired foods of fish and cetaceans [77]. Cetaceans face direct mortality or may become weak and prone to predation or disease due to the effect of plastic debris [78]. A study in North Pacific Central Gyre estimated that 35 % of fishes out of 670 contained a total of 1375 plastic pieces in their bodies and approximately 2.5 pieces per fish. Most of those plastics are in plankton colors (the primary food source of fish) such as blue, white, and clear [79,78]. Therefore, plastic fragments can accumulate in predators within the food chain [80]. In particular, nanoplastics derived from polystyrene (PS) decrease the filter-feeding rate of blue mussels and impact the cellular and organizational levels [81]. Furthermore, microplastics of polystyrene reduce the number and size of egg cells, sperm motility, and larval number for oysters [82], and also reduce the growth rate of Gammarus pulex [83]. Moreover, micro- and nanoplastics affect the temperature-related biological processes, and cause the change in the sex ratio of turtle eggs during incubation [52].

Apart from fauna, plastics interact with terrestrial and aquatic flora. Preliminary laboratory observations suggest that plastic traces available in the soil can negatively affect aquatic plants by reducing shoot and root length [60].

2.10 Human Health Risks Associated with Plastic Pollution

Plastic pollution has become one of the major environmental problems in recent years. Large plastic waste present in rivers, lakes and oceans gradually breaks down into smaller particles known as microplastics and nanoplastics.[90]. These particles are now being found almost everywhere, including drinking water, seafood, table salt and even the air we breathe .Humans can be exposed to microplastics through different ways. One of the most common ways is through food and drinking water. Studies have shown that microplastics are present in bottled water, seafood and many other food products which are consumed regularly by people. According to [85] an average person may consume thousands of microplastic particles every year through food and beverages.

Another important route of exposure is inhalation. Tiny plastic fibres released from clothes, carpets and other plastic products can remain suspended in air and enter the respiratory system. [84] found evidence of microplastics in human lung tissue, suggesting that people are exposed to these particles through the air as well.[93].

Researchers have also raised concerns regarding the possible health effects of microplastics. Once these particles enter the body, they may cause inflammation and oxidative stress which can damage cells and tissues as mentioned in the paper [91]. Some studies have suggested that long-term exposure to microplastics can negatively affect human health, although more research is still required. Apart from the particles themselves, plastics also contain chemical additives such as Bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates.[86]. These chemicals are used during plastic manufacturing and may interfere with the hormonal system of the human body. [87] reported that such chemicals can affect growth, reproduction and overall health if exposure occurs over a long period of time.

Recent findings have become even more concerning. [92] detected microplastics in human placental tissues, while it also reported the presence of plastic particles in human blood samples. These studies suggest that microplastics are capable of moving through different parts of the body. However, scientists still do not fully understand what long-term effects these particles may have on human health.[88,89]

Overall, the available studies indicate that plastic pollution is not only an environmental issue but may also become a serious public health concern in the future. More detailed studies are needed to understand the long-term impacts of microplastic exposure on humans.

Humanised 

In recent years, plastic pollution has become one of the major environmental issues. The large plastic waste we see in rivers, lakes and seas gradually disintegrates into smaller particles called microplastics and nanoplastics. These particles have now been found in many parts of the environment, raising concerns of possible human exposure (Wright & Kelly, 2017) and there are several ways that humans can be exposed to microplastics, two important sources being food and drinking water. Different food and beverage products that are regularly consumed by people have been reported to contain microplastics in various studies . The exact amount can vary depending on a person’s diet and other sources of exposure, but Cox et al. (2019) estimate that people may consume thousands of microplastic particles each year. An additional potential pathway of exposure is through inhalation. Small plastic fibres that come off synthetic clothing, carpets and other materials are present in the air and can potentially make their way into the lungs. Amato-Lourenço et al. (2021) found evidence of microplastic particles in the lungs of human subjects. This evidence shows that inhalation could also be one of the significant pathways of microplastic exposure.Furthermore, scientists are concerned about potential consequences that these particles might have once they entered the human body. According to Prata et al. (2020), there are certain biological responses to microplastic exposure, including inflammation and oxidative stress. Nonetheless, the true health impacts of microplastic exposure in humans are not well understood and require further research.In addition to the actual plastic particles, there are additional worries about chemical additives contained in the plastic items. Additives such as Bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates are often found in plastic items, and some of them may affect the endocrine or hormonal systems. Environmental and health issues connected with chemical additives used in plastic items were considered by Hahladakis et al. (2018).Additional scientific evidence shows that microplastics are present in the human body. According to Ragusa et al. (2021), microplastics were found in human placental tissue, while Leslie et al. (2022) found plastic particles in the human blood samples. Even though these results do not provide any direct proof of specific diseases caused by microplastics, they indicate the ability of plastic particles to get inside the human body. All in all, prior researches show that human exposure to microplastics is a new threat. Present literature proves the human exposure to microplastics by ingestion and breathing, and the presence of plastic materials in some parts of human body and bloodstream. Nevertheless, there is a lack of information regarding the possible consequences of such exposure. It is important to conduct more researches to learn more about the risks connected with human exposure to microplastics and nanoplastics.

2.11 Challenges, Limitations and Future Research Directions

Although a large number of studies have been conducted on plastic pollution, there are still many challenges and limitations in this field of research. One of the biggest challenges is the lack of a standard method for collecting and analysing microplastic samples. Different researchers use different techniques and procedures, making it difficult to compare results from various studies.

Another major limitation is the detection of nanoplastics. Because nanoplastics are extremely small in size, they are difficult to identify using traditional laboratory methods. Advanced instruments are often required, which are expensive and not available in every research laboratory. Contamination during sampling is also a common problem. Plastic fibres from clothes, laboratory equipment or the surrounding environment can accidentally enter the samples. This may affect the accuracy of results and sometimes lead to overestimation of plastic contamination levels. Many existing studies are based on laboratory experiments conducted over a short period of time. Therefore, there is still limited information available regarding the long-term effects of microplastics on ecosystems and human health. In addition, most of the research has been carried out in developed countries, while many developing regions still lack sufficient data on plastic pollution.

Future research should focus on developing better and more affordable methods for detecting microplastics and nanoplastics. Scientists should also conduct more long-term studies to understand how these particles affect humans, animals and aquatic ecosystems over time. International cooperation and data sharing between researchers can also help improve our understanding of plastic contamination worldwide.

In conclusion, while significant progress has been made in understanding plastic pollution, several challenges still remain. Addressing these limitations through improved research methods and advanced technologies will help provide a more complete understanding of the problem and support effective solutions in the future.

3. Methodology

This study employed a systematic literature review design to synthesize current scientific evidence on micro-, macro-, and nanoplastic contamination and detection technologies in aquatic environments. The review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA 2020) guidelines (Page et al., 2021) to ensure methodological transparency, reproducibility, and comprehensive reporting. Unlike traditional narrative reviews, this approach utilized a predefined review protocol to systematically identify, screen, select, critically appraise, and synthesize relevant literature, thereby minimizing selection bias and enhancing the reliability of the findings.

3.1 Search Strategy and Information Sources

A comprehensive literature search was conducted across four major electronic databases: NCBI PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. These databases were selected because of their extensive coverage of environmental science, public health, and bioscience literature. Previous research has demonstrated that the combination of PubMed and Google Scholar captures approximately 85–98% of relevant bioscience publications (Teo & Ling, 2020).

The search strategy combined controlled vocabulary and free-text terms using Boolean operators (AND, OR) and truncation symbols (*) to capture variations in terminology across databases.

The database search was supplemented using the backward snowballing technique, whereby the reference lists of eligible studies were manually examined to identify additional relevant publications not retrieved during the electronic search.

Eligibility Criteria

Studies were selected according to predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria to ensure consistency, relevance, and methodological rigor.

1. Inclusion Criteria: Studies were included if they met the following criteria.

1. Peer-reviewed journal articles, conference proceedings, or official reports published by recognized governmental or international organizations.
2. Published between 2010 and 2026 to capture recent advances in plastic pollution monitoring and detection technologies, including Atomic Force Microscopy–Infrared Spectroscopy (AFM-IR), hyperspectral imaging, artificial intelligence, and machine learning applications.
3. Investigated microplastics, macroplastics, or nanoplastics in aquatic environments, including rivers, lakes, estuaries, marine ecosystems, coastal waters, or wastewater systems.
4. Reported contamination levels, transport mechanisms, monitoring approaches, or analytical detection methods for plastic pollutants.
5. Published in the English language.

1. Exclusion Criteria: Studies were excluded if they:

1. Focused exclusively on terrestrial or atmospheric plastic pollution without an aquatic component.
2. Were editorials, opinion papers, commentaries, abstracts without accessible full texts, or publications lacking clearly described and validated methodologies.
3. Were duplicate publications or contained insufficient methodological information for quality assessment.

Study Selection and Data Extraction

The study selection process followed the PRISMA 2020 framework. Records retrieved from all databases were screened, and duplicate publications were removed before the eligibility assessment.

A two-stage screening process was adopted. During the first stage, two independent reviewers assessed article titles and abstracts for relevance according to the predefined eligibility criteria. In the second stage, the full texts of potentially eligible studies were independently evaluated. Any disagreements regarding study inclusion were resolved through discussion and consensus or, where necessary, through consultation with a third reviewer to minimize selection bias.

A standardized data extraction form was used to ensure consistency and completeness. Information extracted from each study included:

• Author(s) and year of publication;
• Country or geographical study location;
• Aquatic environment investigated;
• Type of plastic contaminant (microplastic, macroplastic, or nanoplastic);
• Particle size classification;
• Sampling and analytical methods;
• Detection technology employed (e.g., visual inspection, microscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, artificial intelligence-assisted image analysis, and remote sensing);
• Polymer types identified;
• Recovery efficiency, detection limits, and analytical performance where reported; and
• Major findings and study limitations.

Quality Assessment and Data Synthesis

The methodological quality of all included studies was critically appraised to evaluate scientific rigor and potential sources of bias. The assessment considered the clarity of the research objectives, appropriateness of the study design, sampling procedures, analytical methodologies, reporting transparency, and overall reliability of the findings.

Given the expected heterogeneity in study designs, sampling approaches, analytical techniques, and outcome measures, a quantitative meta-analysis was not considered appropriate. Instead, a narrative synthesis was employed to integrate and compare findings across the included studies.

The synthesized evidence was organized according to:

• Type of plastic contaminant (microplastics, macroplastics, and nanoplastics);
• Aquatic environment (freshwater, estuarine, marine, coastal, and wastewater systems); and
• Detection technology (visual inspection, microscopy, FTIR spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, hyperspectral imaging, artificial intelligence, machine learning, and remote sensing).

This thematic approach facilitated comparison of conventional and emerging analytical techniques, identification of current methodological limitations, evaluation of technological advances, and recognition of existing research gaps, particularly the lack of standardized monitoring frameworks in many developing countries and the continuing challenges associated with nanoplastic detection.

4. Result

Plastic, since its arrival in our lives has become an epicentre of serious human health ailments. It’s fatal grip upon our lives, begins from a large group of causes, though aquatic environment is the focal point from where roots of plastic pollution spread.

Aquatic based microplastics, more specifically Nano plastics are less than 5mm in size. These plastics gradually pollute the aquatic system and become a part of aquatic food chain. These toxins become a part of successive levels and cause biomagnification  with serious health repercussions.

Next step in fathoming the plastics world is to classify the plastic debris. According to their size, the categories are microplastics, Mesoplastics (1–<10 mm), macroplastics (>1 cm), microplastics (1–<1,000 μm) and nanoplastics (1–<1,000 nm)

Another distinction is based on primary and secondary microplastics. The primary ones are found in cosmetics, toothpaste or pharmaceutical drugs. Since the cause of microplastics lies in the marine environment, further investigations about the sources of contamination in water bodies lead us to multi varied sources. Sources concern a wide range of polluters and stakeholders, such as industrial waste discharge (including metals and toxic substances) into river bodies. Another major source stems from our daily use routine such as synthetic textile fibre due to cloth washing. Besides, shipping, aquaculture, and tourism lead to plastic aggregation, affecting environment.

Another grave challenge exist in the form of variability of microplastics, mainly seen in physical and dynamic chemical properties. The physical and chemical properties are subject to the following dynamics- density, structure, molecular structure and cross blending of plastics. Additives- act as a booster for microplastics by changing their density, affecting their deposition in riverbeds. Some specific micro organism (bacteria) are known to breakdown micro plastic, but remains persist.

After all this knowledge concerning the nature of plastics, structure and effect, the most important question is to detect and categorise plastics. Here comes the role of spectroscopic techniques. Herein, it test substances based on how they absorb, scatter or emit light, UV, infrared radiation.

FTIR is the most widely used, followed by Raman spectroscopy, Near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy and laser direct infrared (LDIR) spectroscopy. All these differ based upon that technology and mechanics applied and give us the true nature of the plastic through molecular vibrations.

With advancement in human technology interface, remote sensing and imaging techniques have emerged as the new intermediary for detecting plastic debris in water. It has improved efficiency in detecting, but human intervention is still considered vital due to different shapes and size. Machine learning algorithms along with numerical based index- floating debris index. This test model applied in Brazil showed 87.25% accuracy in suspected plastic identification.

With every new technology comes drawbacks, such as standardised quantification methods, insufficient benchmark datasets, euro-centric bias etc. Plastics, though tiny polymer structures have mammoth and sometimes irreversible, invisible health impacts. First in line are animals such as snakes and birds which get trapped by plastic nets. These plastic if injested can potentially cause intestinal injuries, diminishing food stimulus etc. Chemicals associated with plastics can travel through food web and cause oxidative stress. Example- Polychlorinated Biphenyls enter the food chain and cause reproduction disorder.

Human health too- has become largely inclined  to such risk mainly through consumption of seafood, beverages and inhalation of synthetic fibre, which can cause cell and tissue damage. The need for the hour is better detection, awareness to cope- up and reduce this evolving challenge.

Future research should be directed towards enhancing the efficiency of existing technologies and developing more accurate and cost-effective methods of detection of polymers.

5. Discussion

This study examined the issue of microplastic and macroplastic contamination in water bodies, including what their sources were as well as the transport, detection methods and impacts on both the environment and human health. The review found that plastic pollution mainly originates from improper waste disposal, industrial activities, wastewater discharge, agricultural practices, synthetic textile fibres and other human activities which include discharge of waste and other prohibited materials. These plastics gradually break down into microplastics and nanoplastics, which can easily spread through aquatic ecosystems and disrupt aquatic life .The study also found that plastic particles are transported through rivers, lakes and oceans and can accumulate in sediments, aquatic organisms and food chains which could result in potential damage to organisms and oceans. Different detection methods such as FTIR spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, Near Infrared Spectroscopy and remote sensing technologies have improved the identification of plastic pollutants in water bodies. However, limitations still exist, particularly in the detection of very small nanoplastics.

Overall, the results show that plastic pollution has grown to be a major environmental problem that has a variety of effects on both human health and aquatic ecosystems. This study also emphasizes the need of enhancing waste management procedures, strengthening monitoring systems, and creating more potent plastic detection technologies, all of which would improve aquatic life while also lowering pollution and improper waste discharge.

The findings of this study are generally consistent with previous research on plastic contamination in aquatic environments as Earlier studies have reported that rivers, lakes and oceans act as major pathways for the transport and accumulation of plastic waste whereas, Similar observations were found in this review, where different sources such as industrial discharge, wastewater, textile fibres, agriculture and tourism were identified as important contributors to plastic pollution in water bodies. Previous studies have also shown that microplastics and nanoplastics can move through aquatic food chains and undergo biomagnification, eventually reaching higher trophic levels including humans.

The findings discussed in this paper support these observations and they further highlight the potential risks associated with long-term exposure to plastic particles through seafood consumption, drinking water and use of sea/lake water in any form. The results are also in agreement with earlier research regarding plastic detection methods as techniques such as FTIR spectroscopy and raman spectroscopy and remote sensing technologies have been widely recognised as effective tools for identifying plastic contaminants. However, similar to previous studies, this review found that challenges still exist, including the lack of standardised methods for detection , difficulties in detecting nanoplastics thoroughly and limitations in data collection across different regions.

Furthermore, earlier literature has noted several environmental and ecological impacts of plastic pollution, including ingestion by aquatic organisms, habitat degradation and chemical toxicity of the water. The present review supports these findings and emphasises that plastic pollution continues to pose serious risks to both ecosystem health and human well-being.

Overall, the findings of this study closely align with existing literature, while also reinforcing the need for improved monitoring systems and further research on the long-term impacts of plastic contamination.

The implications of plastic contamination go beyond environmental quality and represent a significant concern for ecosystem stability and human health. Microplastics aggressively introduce and transfer hazardous chemical pollutants throughout the food chain when they are consumed by marine life. Larger macroplastics, on the other hand, confine aquatic environments, severely entangling species, destroying important nurseries, and impeding naturally occurring biological processes. Therefore, it is essential to map the precise relationship between the formation of microplastics and the breakdown of macroplastics in order to design more intelligent environmental strategies. In the end, these results show that controlling this catastrophe necessitates more than simply clearing out the garbage that already exists; we must actively stop the flood of plastic by updating the world’s waste infrastructure and drastically lowering our dependency on single-use items.

Limitations should be considered despite the importance of the findings. The levels of plastic pollution in aquatic environments are influenced by a variety of factors, including seasonal fluctuations, hydrological conditions, geographical differences, and sampling methods. Even while modern analytical techniques improve detection accuracy, large-scale monitoring projects are nevertheless hindered by problems with methodological homogeneity, analytical costs, and reference material availability. There are a number of reasons why different studies may reveal different levels of plastic contamination.

Future research should focus on identifying economical methods for conducting extensive plastic monitoring and standardizing detection protocols. By utilizing cutting-edge technologies like automated imaging systems, remote sensing, and artificial intelligence, plastic identification may become even more productive and accurate. Longer-term studies with wider geographic coverage and seasonal monitoring are required for a more complete knowledge of plastic transport channels, accumulation behavior, and ecological effects. In order to address the growing issue of microplastic and macroplastic pollution in aquatic ecosystems, this work emphasizes the importance of combining modern, advanced detection techniques with useful management strategies.

6. Conclusion

Plastic pollution has become one of the most serious environmental challenges affecting water bodies across the world and this study reviewed the sources, classification, transport, detection methods as well as impacts of both microplastic and macroplastic in aquatic environments which also directly impacts human life. findings show that plastic waste enters water systems through various pathways such as improper waste disposal, industrial activities, wastewater discharge, agriculture, tourism and everyday human activities. Once released into the environment, these larger plastic materials gradually break down into smaller particles that can remain in aquatic ecosystems for a very long time and disrupt the long term health of not only aquatic animals but sea life as well.

The review also pointed out that plastic contamination is not limited to aquatic organisms but is also affecting human health. Many aquatic animals mistake plastic particles for food and ingest them, causing physical injuries and growth and reproductive problems. These plastics can move in the food chain and eventually end up in humans via different sources like eating seafood, drinking water and even air. The long-term health effects are still being studied, but some research has shown that prolonged exposure to microplastics may pose serious risks down the line. Another important finding of this study is the growing role of advanced detection technologies which include methods like ftir spectroscopy Raman spectroscopy Near Infrared Spectroscopy and remote sensing techniques have improved the identification and monitoring of plastic pollution.

In conclusion plastic pollution is no longer just an environmental problem but a social and public health problem and while solving this problem will require better waste management practices , stronger environmental policies , greater public awareness and continued scientific research and future efforts should focus on improving detection technologies( as it is one of the key issues ) , reducing plastic waste at the source and promoting sustainable alternatives and With the help of collective action by governments, industries, researchers and individuals the impacts of plastic pollution on aquatic ecosystems can be reduced and managed more effectively.

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