Authors:- Ankit Pandey, Monika Kholiya, Abhudaya Gupta, Harshita Singh, Shreya Das, Jiana Jain, Sanjana

Introduction

Waste management in India is a growing concern due to rapid urbanization, population growth, and increasing consumption patterns. Municipal solid waste management in India is still a key challenge despite substantive policy focus and programmatic efforts such as Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 and Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM). The nation is currently producing 62–72 million tonnes of municipal solid waste every year, and it is projected that this could drastically increase to 125–165 million tonnes by 2031–2030 due to accelerated urbanization, economic development, and changing consumption patterns (Ahluwalia & Patel, 2018). Urban per capita generation of waste varies between 400 to 700 grams per day and gives a cumulative national daily wastage of more than 150,000 tonnes (Agarwal & Singh, 2023). But the country’s geographical, economic, and societal diversities are reflected in the management of the waste, which is extremely uneven within various states and cities. For example, although some areas have enhanced collection efficiency others continue to depend on open dumping and do not have sanitary landfills or proper treatment facilities ( Ali et al. 2024; Agarwal & Singh, 2023 ).

Municipal solid waste composition is largely organic material and accounts for approximately 50–60% of the total waste, which if not disposed of in a safe manner presents serious environmental and health risks (Ali et al. 2024; Ahluwalia & Patel, 2018). Organic waste decomposition in unplanned dumpsites is responsible for greenhouse gas emission, especially methane, and creates leachate that pollutes soil and ground water resources (Agarwal & Singh, 2023, Ahluwalia & Patel, 2018).

Technological adoption in waste treatment is still limited. Though some cities have waste-to-energy (WtE) and bio methanation plants in operation, their efficiency is questionable. Composting, which would be able to handle the high organic fraction of Indian municipal waste effectively, is carried out on a small scale, and the absence of segregation at source—still rare in most cities—further inhibits resource recovery and safe disposal (Ali et al. 2024; Ahluwalia & Patel, 2018).

Recognizing the need for a more comprehensive and enforcement system, the government has introduced various waste management policies. Government efforts created new composting facilities, material recovery facilities, and some increase in waste processing capacity (Ahluwalia & Patel, 2018). 

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016

The SWM rules aim to regulate solid waste management. It is applicable to all types of urban local bodies and waste generators and strives to formalize the collection, segregation, treatment, recycling, and sustainable disposal of waste.

Major highlights of the SWM rules, 2016

• Mandates door-to-door solid waste collection.
• Arrange the waste into three categories for segregation before collection: biodegradables, dry waste, and domestic hazardous waste.
• It is mandatory for Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) to process waste and treat the residual waste before disposing of it in sanitary landfills. There should be a buffer zone between residential areas and sanitary landfills.
• All the biodegradable waste should be converted into compost, biogas, and electricity by setting up waste-to-energy plants by ULBs.
•   The rules empower the urban local bodies to levy user fees for waste collection from waste generators.
• Penalties are prescribed for non-compliance with the rules.
• ULBs are responsible for generating awareness.

As per CPCB, 2021 report, segregation of waste during door-to-door collection has reached above 95 percent with the success of the Swachh Bharat Mission. Furthermore, only 5 states have accounted for 100 percent segregation.  Delhi and Mumbai are segregating less than 50 per cent of the total waste.  As a result, unaccounted waste across India is at about 31% (CPCB, 2021). Following the waste collection and segregation, the crucial phase of treatment reveals staggering data.

Treatment has risen consistently over the years, but is still about 50%, showing gaps in the SWM.There are only 1924 landfill sites in the country, compared to 3184 dumpsites with a reclamation rate of 10%. Most landfills lack scientific design and do not follow buffer zone guidelines, causing socio-economic-environmental challenges. (CPCB, 2021; Deonar Mumbai case study; KK Create, 2025)

Monitoring and Evaluation

A proper evaluation and monitoring system is absent for the implementation of the rules. Only three states have provided ULBs-wise information; remaining states have provided consolidated information (CPCB, 2021). The Swachh Survekshan mission ranks states based on macro data. With only 15 states/UT having monitoring facilities at waste processing sites, micro data deficiency persists, preventing target-based interventions. Although ambient air quality is monitored at landfills, only 13 sites in India track leachate and groundwater quality. Also, the quality of data provided by SPCB to CPCB is not as per CPCB standards. (CPCB, 2021). Lack of compliance with NGT directives persists due to administrative lethargy, with no proper monitoring system in place for tracking compliance (Gill, 2017).

Swachh Bharat Mission

Swachh Bharat Mission which brought up a revolutionary change in the nation was started by the government of India on 2nd October, 2014. Solid and liquid waste management is one of the key components of the mission to bring cleanliness and maintain hygiene in rural areas. To achieve this, the mission focused on creating awareness about the importance of sanitation, hygiene and to keep surroundings clean (Kumari, 2024; Patil, 2025). The average household waste generation rate is 0.44 kg per person per day in rural areas. Rural solid waste contains organic waste (46.14%) and inorganic waste, including kitchen waste, paper, plastics, textiles and mainly agricultural waste (Anand and Devi, 2023). The approaches used to maintain solid waste in rural areas such as segregation of waste into biodegradable and non-biodegradable categories, facilitating effective processing and disposal, Waste to energy projects which help to generate power from the waste, reducing the harmful environmental impact of waste disposal, Composting helps to reduce waste mainly in rural areas and create nutrient rich manure for agriculture and for landfills, and Recycling of non-biodegradable waste such as plastics, glass etc. to conserve natural resources. 

Recognizing the need, several states have initiated a range of measures such as building waste collection centers, promoting menstrual hygiene practices, setting up biogas plants, constructing compost pits, installing dustbins, and implementing systems for garbage collection, segregation, and disposal. Additionally, efforts include the development of drainage systems, leach pits, soak pits, and stabilization ponds. Since October 2014, approximately 3000 units were established for plastic waste reuse and over 9.5 crore toilets have been built all over the country and 564,658 villages have been declared ODF (ADB, 2021; CPCB, 2022). 

Waste segregation at source is a major challenge, lack of awareness among the citizens, underdeveloped sense of responsibility, open dumping in fringe areas, littering in public places calls for regular cleaning, which adds to service costs and efforts (Ghosh et al., 2025; Patil, 2025). Most local vermicomposting plants are not well maintained or receive waste beyond their capacity, which causes problems for residents (Ghosh et al., 2025). The Swachh Bharat Mission primarily focused on achieving Open Defecation Free status across India, with significant success in toilet construction and promoting sanitation practices (Kumari, 2024; Ghosh et al., 2025). However, the campaign’s emphasis on ODF often overshadowed other critical aspects of sanitation, particularly solid and liquid waste management. As a result, many regions continue to grapple with inadequate waste disposal systems, highlighting the need for sustained efforts to address these gaps and ensure comprehensive sanitation coverage. 

Case studies:  

Indore’s success story

The Cleanest City in India, Indore, located in Madhya Pradesh, has earned the title of India’s cleanest city multiple times in the Swachh Survekshan rankings conducted by the Government of India. The city has successfully transformed its waste management practices over the past few years and this transformation involved a mix of strong political will, efficient planning, technology, and active citizen involvement.

One of Indore’s major achievements is 100% waste segregation at the source. Every household is required to separate dry and wet waste before it is collected, the collected waste is then transported to various processing units where it is composted, converted into biogas, or used for energy generation. Regular inspections, fines, and incentives were introduced to ensure compliance with waste management rules. This helped maintain the cleanliness of the city and encouraged citizens to adhere to waste segregation and disposal guidelines. Indore has set up several decentralized composting units and biomethanation plants and these facilities reduce the volume of waste going to landfills and help generate usable byproducts like compost and electricity. The city also runs an advanced waste-to-energy plant that further minimizes landfill dependency.

However, the heart of Indore’s success lies in its people. Public participation has been a cornerstone of its waste management program. The municipal corporation, along with local NGOs, has conducted widespread awareness campaigns in schools, residential areas, and marketplaces. Citizens are regularly encouraged and even rewarded for following waste segregation rules. This sense of ownership and civic pride among residents plays a major role in keeping Indore clean.

The Mounting Waste Crisis in Delhi

A City Buried in Waste On the opposite end is Delhi, India’s capital city, which struggles with a massive waste problem. The city produces more than 11,000 tonnes of solid waste every day, a significant portion of which ends up in three overflowing landfill sites, Ghazipur, Bhalswa, and Okhla. These landfills are not only eyesores but also serious health and environmental hazards.

One of the key issues in Delhi’s waste management system is the lack of segregation at source. Most households dispose of all types of waste together, which makes recycling or composting nearly impossible. As a result, a large chunk of waste is sent directly to landfills without any processing. These landfills have long exceeded their capacity and often catch fire due to the buildup of methane gas, releasing toxic smoke that affects air quality.

The situation is made worse by inefficient waste collection systems and gaps in policy implementation. While there are rules in place to promote segregation and reduce landfill use, they are rarely enforced effectively. Municipal agencies are often understaffed and underfunded, and coordination among different departments is poor. Informal waste pickers, who form a crucial part of the city’s waste economy, work in hazardous conditions and receive little support. Public awareness about proper waste disposal is also lacking. Many residents are either unaware of or indifferent to the environmental consequences of improper waste management. Without community involvement, even the best policies can fail to produce results.

Ambikapur: A Model of Decentralized Waste Management in India

One prominent example of decentralized and community-driven solid waste management is the city of Ambikapur in Chhattisgarh. Solid-Liquid Resource Management (SLRM) centers, which manage trash collection, segregation, composting, and recycling at the ward level, are part of the city’s zero-landfill concept (CECB, 2019; NITI Aayog, 2018). Large dumping grounds are no longer necessary because of this decentralized architecture, which lessens environmental damage (MoEFCC, 2016). The involvement of more than 400 women in self-help groups (SHGs), which promote inclusive development and better livelihoods, is a unique aspect of Ambikapur’s concept (Rathore & Dubey, 2020). In order to improve hygiene and civic duty, households are required to separate rubbish at the source, and trained SHG members pick it up door-to-door (Gupta & Choudhury, 2020). The technique has been shown to be economical, saving the town a significant amount of money on landfill and transportation costs (Singh, 2020). In addition, the city uses ICT tools for transparency and monitoring, which is in line with the objectives of the Smart Cities Mission (MoHUA, 2020). The scalability and policy significance of Ambikapur’s concept are being reinforced by its replication in other cities after being acknowledged by national bodies (UN-Habitat, 2018).

Bengaluru’s Steps Towards Sustainable Waste Management

Bengaluru, India’s third-most populated city, produces 3,000 to 5,500 tons of solid waste every day due to increased urbanization (BBMP, 2023). Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) treats waste by collecting it door-to-door, sources segregating it, decentralized processing, and landfills, serving 80% of buildings with 20,000 sanitation workers and 670 vehicles (BBMP, 2023). Bengaluru takes the lead for India with a 50% segregation rate thanks to volunteers in the community (Suchi Mitras) (C40 Cities, 2024). But a mere 40–45% is being treated; the remaining is dumped into saturated landfills such as Mavallipura, leading to groundwater pollution and public health issues (BBMP, 2023; ESG, 2018). The city has 16 biomethanation plants and 164 Dry Waste Collection Centers but processes less than half of its daily waste (BBMP, 2023). To counter challenges, BBMP has implemented usage-based fees in 2025 and has planned four major treatment plants to minimize landfill dependency (BBMP, 2023; ESG, 2018). Cooperation with hotel associations and community groups reduces 250 tons of organic waste per day (C40 Cities, 2024). Sustainability is challenged despite advances due to poor enforcement and limited capacity and demands coordinated infrastructure and stringent regulation (Kalra & Manasi, 2018; Goswami & Maurya, 2020).

Recommendations 

To tackle the chronic gaps in solid and liquid waste management (SLWM) under the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), a multi-pronged approach is the need of the hour. Community involvement has to be given top priority through behavior change campaigns focusing on segregation of waste at source, utilizing local institutions like schools and Panchayats for outreach targeting (Kumari, 2024). Incentivizing families through reward programs and incorporating multimedia aids in awareness campaigns can correct misunderstanding regarding waste disposal while emphasizing its health and environmental consequences (Patil, 2025). At the same time, decentralized infrastructure, such as biogas plants and compost pits, must be ramped up with strict controls on capacity levels to avoid overloading plants, while PPPs can improve maintenance and operational effectiveness of existing vermicomposting units (Ghosh et al., 2025). Strengthening liquid waste management by investing in drainage systems and leachate treatment technologies is also crucial (CPCB, 2022).

  Institutional capacity building and policy integration are essential to prevent ODF targets from overshadowing SLWM. A specific SLWM framework under SBM with distinct budgets and monitoring mechanisms would guarantee responsibility (Kumari, 2024). Educating municipal workers in waste management procedures and policy harmonization with circular economy values, e.g., encouraging recycling and waste-to-energy initiatives, can embed sustainable practices (ADB, 2021). Technological advancement should also be given high priority, e.g., Research and Development in affordable automated segregation technologies, biodegradable products for agricultural residues, and digital solutions such as waste-tracking apps to enhance transparency (Anand & Devi, 2023). Scaling pilot projects on managing menstrual waste would further ensure recycling and safe disposal of sanitary products.

In order to improve the enforcement of the Solid Waste Management (SWM) Rules, 2016, a few major recommendations arise. First, enforcement measures need to be strengthened by setting up strong monitoring systems at macro and micro levels to monitor compliance and performance of ULBs (CPCB, 2021). Real-time data collection and transparency will facilitate targeted interventions and accountability. Second, 100% segregation at the source should be pursued nationwide aggressively through publicity campaigns and incentivization, as fewer states have laws for 100% segregation (CPCB, 2021). Third, waste treatment facilities need scaling on a priority basis, specifically scientific landfill management with adequate buffer zones in order to avoid environmental pollution, considering the low reclamation rate and widespread dumpsites (CPCB, 2021). All these measures together can fill the gaps that exist and guarantee sustainable urban waste management.

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