Authors:- Sakshi Sharma, Nabiha Fatima, Diva and Tannu

Introduction

Throughout much of the 21st century, ‘Gender’ as a social construct has integrated itself into global politics, economics as well as culture. Owing to some of the first efforts for gender equality in the 1800s, to much later, more organised Feminist Movements in the 1900s, over time, we have witnessed the establishment of academic fields related to gender issues, more specifically, “Women’s Studies” (Crouch, 2012). Such advancements have led to a significant increase in scholarly knowledge related to gender and women’s issues. Therefore, ‘gender’ serves as a primary framework that shapes much of our social institutions and interactions (Ridgeway, 2009). Consequently, advocacy efforts around gender equality often target specific socio-cultural perceptions of gender, as the root causes of gender inequality (UNDP, 2019). One such causal factor deeply entrenched in our societies is ‘Patriarchy.’

Definition

The ‘Online Etymology Dictionary’ states the origins of the word Patriarchy as rooted in the Greek word patriarkhēs, etymologically meaning, ‘the rule of the father’. In a more literal sense, the term is used to describe families in which the head of the household is a male- the patriarch.

Kamala Bhasin, a prominent South Asian feminist scholar, defines patriarchy as the systems of male-dominated power structures that lead to the subordination of women, in her book, ‘Understanding Gender’. According to Bhasin, Patriarchy has certain characteristics such as being class-specific, involving male ownership of resources, as well as a generalised belief of male superiority.

In essence, ‘Patriarchy’ is used to define male domination in our societies.

Friedrich Engels, a pioneer in Marxist theorisation, wrote extensively on the origins of male domination in society. In his work titled, ‘The Origin of the Family, Private Property’, Engels cited reasons for Private Property and Patrilineal inheritance that led to an increase in male wealth acquisition. Consequently, men gained a status of supremacy and women– that of subjugation/subordination.

Drawing further into the ideas of male domination, patriarchy is a highly androcentric belief system rooted in male-centric perspectives (Lindsey, 2016). Androcentric patriarchal norms further extend into rigid gender roles and sexism.

Based on the works of the mentioned scholars, we can conclude that Patriarchy is the male-dominated social structure and brief system, prevalent in all social institutions, that leads to the hegemony of men and subordination of women. This subordination paves the way for further victimisation of women, which we will analyse in the following section.

How Patriarchy perpetuates women’s struggles

As a system of male control over women, Patriarchy inevitably constructs ‘Violence against Women,’ which can manifest itself in various forms, such as: –

Rape as a “gendered crime” disproportionately victimises more women than men, with mostperpetrators being men (Singh, 2021, p. 190). The statistics on sexual violence victims being mostly women, reveal the underlying patriarchal narrative in our societies. Feminist approaches often dismantle the issue of sexual violence not just involving non-consensualsexual activities but also, involving power dynamics.

In patriarchal structures where men hold authority, acts of sexual violence become a way for men to exert and exercise their superiority/ power over women (McPhail, 2016).

The need for male violence against women arises when their patriarchal status is threatened (Tracy, 2007). Domestic Violence is an example of such type of violence, extending into the family sphere of our societies.

Scholars like Kamala Bhasin (2003) and Megan Todd (2017) have both pointed out how the Private-Public binary makes it difficult for women to speak up against domestic abuse. This binary presents the issue of Domestic Abuse as a ‘private issue’, not a matter that is of public concern (Todd, 2017). This type of Private-Public distinction upholds androcentrism, thus isolating women (Bhasin, 2003).

In a patriarchal setup, women are more likely to be vulnerable to domestic and household violence.

Honour-related crimes against women involve the male members of a family harming or killing the female member(s) for going against the patriarchal social norms, thereby bringing dishonour to the family (Qassis-Jaraysah, 2011). Male-dominated societal setups withhold women’s autonomy. As a result, in extreme cases, women get killed for making life choices that disturb the notion of ‘so-called honour’, which can include being involved in an inter-caste relationship, or resisting a forceful arranged marriage setup. In India, cases of honourkilling are seen even against female victims of rape, placing the blame of the assault on the victim for losing her ‘chastity’.

Some other common forms of patriarchal violence and harm include Female Genital Mutilation, Financial Abuse, Human Trafficking, Forced Child Marriage, etc.

To conclude, Patriarchy establishes a rigid control over women that often leads to violent crimes against women. It perpetuates women’s struggles even further by: –

Furthermore, insufficient legal frameworks in some countries can increase the gender disparity fuelled by Patriarchy.

The Definition, Development, and Evolution of Feminist Theory 

Feminist Theory critically examines the social construction of gender, systematic oppression of women, and gender inequality in an interdisciplinary framework. Rooted in various academic disciplines, including political science, sociology, philosophy, and cultural studies, it questions the notion that gender is a fixed biological trait. Rather, feminist theory contends that social, cultural, and institutional behaviours continuously construct and reproduce gender (Butler, 1999). Fundamentally, uneven power relations were maintained by patriarchal norms and ideologies through elevating masculinity and devaluing femininity. Crucially, feminist theory reflects the complexity of the human experience by offering a range of viewpoints that provide different ways to comprehend gendered oppression rather than being a single ideology (Disch & Hawkesworth, 2015). The inclusion of intersectionality, which shows how gender intersects with race, class, sexual orientation, and other axes of identification to create complex forms of subordination, further enhances this multiplicity of thought (Crenshaw, 1989).
Feminist theory’s philosophical foundations go well beyond its official academic formulation in the 20th century. Long before feminist theory was codified as a field of study, early criticisms of gender inequality may be found in a variety of historical and cultural settings. The acceptance of Two-Spirit identities in several Native American civilizations is proof that traditional practices in many non-Western cultures supported a flexible understanding of gender. These traditions that challenged patriarchal institutions are neither new nor exclusively Western in origin, they recognised a range of gender identities and emphasised alternative social regimes that defied strict binaries (Mohanty, 2003). The Enlightenment laid the groundwork for female critique in Western intellectual history. The foundation for later feminist challenges to gender injustice was laid by Mary Wollstonecraft’s 1792 foundational work “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman”, which advocated for women’s natural rationality and the need for equal educational opportunities. However feminist theory did not start to solidify as a separate area of study until the middle of the 20th century. “The Second Sex” by Simone de Beauvoir, published in 1949, was especially important in explaining how women have historically been viewed as the “Other,” depriving them of complete subjectivity and agency. Since then, a lot of feminist theories have been based on this critique of how women are constructed, and it still influences discussions today.

Feminist theory developed into a variety of subfields. According to Radical feminists, patriarchy is a deeply ingrained system that maintains male authority over women by structuring both the public and private spheres. Liberal feminists, on the other hand, advocate for equal access to political representation, work, and education and concentrate on establishing gender equality through legislative and policy changes. While Postmodern feminists challenge the idea of permanent gender identities by highlighting the role of language and power in forming social norms, Marxist feminists see women’s oppression as the result of capitalist exploitation (Disch & Hawkesworth, 2015). Notwithstanding these diverse strategies, opposing gender hierarchies and promoting revolutionary social change are the shared objectives of all strands.

Trends of Feminist Theory

Liberal feminism, which has its roots in the 18th and 19th centuries, emerged as one of the most crucial trends of feminist theory. Its genesis marked a transformative phase in Western socio-politico thought. Liberal feminist theory, in its vast arena, includes works of renowned scholars like JS Mill, who had brought foundational ideas for the same to the table in “The Subjection of Women (1869)”; and Mary Wollstonecraft, through the book “The Vindication of the rights of Women (1792)”, emphasised on the critical need for equal political participation and education for women, to establish autonomy and showcasing their true ambitions (Almeder, 1994). It not only seeks to voice gender inequality through political and legal reforms but also stresses principles such as individualism; and equal opportunities in both private and public domain. Liberal feminism is about addressing systemic oppression which arises from the lack of political and civil rights given to women; and advocates for legislative measures which can guarantee property ownership, workplace rights and other such benefits to women (Sinopoli and Hirschmann, 1991). While, it has been critiqued for its sole focus on examining the society from the western or” white lens”, which often overlooks the intersecting oppression of class, race or sexual orientation. However, despite such limits, liberal feminism in the contemporary context holds immense significance by emphasizing on dynamic reforms for women, which can successfully address issues like underrepresentation in private and public spheres, gender pay gap, etc. 

Another very significant trend emerged in the 1840s, which found its roots in Karl Marx’s critique of capitalism – Marxist feminism. It advocates against the undermined capital exploits faced by women. This trend voiced the unvalued unpaid reproductive and emotional labour harboured by women and thrived to abolish all those aspects which perpetuate gender and class equality such as – private property. The basic objective laid in the historical roots where women were often neglected in economical roles and were relegated to domestic ones. Marxist feminism critiques the capitalist division of labour which equates women with proletariat and men with bourgeoisie (Federici, 2018). However, Karl Marx’s theory of feminism failed to study the intricacies of patriarchy and left some questions unanswered which Max Weber’s theory of domination, successfully did. This trend was also critiques by Friedrich Engels and Nancy Folbre for being too economic based and lacking the ability to clearly draw a line of distinction between capitalism and patriarchy. Nevertheless, like a coin having two sides, the Marxist theory of feminism has both its perks and penalties. The idea to be emphasised here is that, despite limitations, this trend holds significant relevance in contemporary times in highlighting systemic gender-based exploitation and has substantially shaped the feminist discourse (Lee, 2020).

In the 1960’s, during the second wave of feminism, a new trend was born out of the Liberal and Marxist feminist theory and was termed as– radical feminism. It is rooted in the term “radical”, thus, viewing patriarchy as the sole cause of gender inequality. Radical feminism garnered popularity primarily through groups like the New York Radical Women, founded by Pam Allen and Shulamith Firestone and an infamous piece by Simone de Beauvoir, “TheSecond Sex (1949)” (Bindel,2012). These works not only laid intellectual foundations by critically analysing institutions like motherhood and marriage, but also by backing up the voices of dissatisfaction with restrictive gender roles. The strength of this trend lies in its revolutionary objective to redraw the male-female roles and those forces which perpetuated such a gender discourse (Willis, 1984); however, nothing comes without flaws. It has been critiqued on various grounds, mostly for its lack of scope to understand the intersectional perspectives. Nevertheless, radical feminism remains the need of the hour for the systemic addressal of gender oppression, with more emphasis on activism over economic or legislative changes (Ferguson, 1984).

A decade later in 1970, a new trend was brought into the bigger frame of feminist theory, and was termed as cultural feminism. This trend, unlike the earlier ones which sought to eradicate gender distinctions, focused on the traditional feminine traits of nurturing, empathy and compassion. Estela Mara Bensimon in ‘Feminist Critical Policy Analysis (2005) claimed, that cultural feminism stands in contrast to radical feminism, as the former believes that the ethical priorities of women are shaped through their mobilisation into caregiver roles, thus, supporting the traditional notion, however, the latter seeks to dismantle this traditional notion to eradicate the perpetuating patriarchal structures in the society. While some infer from Enchols, that cultural feminism is an “escapist,” sentimental and simplistic degradation of radical feminism (Sturgis. 1984). Cultural feminism has faced criticisms on the same grounds. Scholars like Alice Echols, who claimed that this trend reinforces “essentialist and heteronormative stereotypes”, thereby, relies on outdated notions of inherent gender differences. Another scholar, Linda Alcoff, iterates the lack of attention given to the fact that such feminine traits might have been a result of oppressive expectations. Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning that cultural feminism, despite its flaws, has re-evaluated the feminine traits which have successfully influenced other feminist discourses like ecofeminism.

Waves of Feminist Theory

First wave :

The first wave of feminism is a term used to describe a period of feminist activism that focused on securing legal and political rights for women. The term was first coined in the work of journalist Martha Weinman Lear in 1968 in New York Times Magazine’sArticle , entitled “Second Feminist Wave: What Do These Women Want” (Four Waves of Feminism, 2024) In the late 19th century and early 20th century first wave of feminist theory emerged in Europe and North America. The main goal of this wave was to get equal political rights, voting rights and dignified position in household. it focuses on social reformation from patriarchy and liberation from racial oppression( Jepsen,2000)It’s goals also included demand for reproductive rights, birth rights, equal educational , employment opportunities, maternity leave, abortion rights and to empower women on sexuality , appropriate child care facilities also and gaining the basic rights of voting, open access to public place and education for women (Herouach,2019)

AWSAAmerican women suffrage association formed in 1866 which advocates for right to vote for women and National Women Suffrage Association (NWSA) in 1869 came into limelight after the collapse of American Equal Rights Association which was formed earlier in the same year . Feminist Alice Paul formed National women’s party NWP after NAWSA broke down.Campbell,1989) The key achievements of first wave are that they secured voting rights,property rights for women mainly in US and Europe .(Singh, 2018) (Four Waves of Feminism, 2024) . This wave shows the instigating stage of raced activism which spread in North America , Egypt , Iran , Europe and India between early 1800s and 1st decades of 20th Century. In her renowned“Ain’t I a Woman” speech at the 1851 Ohio Women’s Rights Convention in Akron, abolitionist Sojourner Truth highlighted this marginalization by addressing the ideological inconsistency that Excluded women of colour from the movement’s agenda.In the year 1848 a seminar on Women Rights was held in Seneca Falls, New York and is placed At the top in the timeline of feminism. This conference was organized by acclaimed activist Lucretia Mott along with Elizabeth Cady Stanton who was a prominent author and the editor of the Revolution as the secretary of the conference. The event brought together around 300 People. Elizabeth Cady, at the seminar, talked about the power men hold over women and how Women lack even basic education and leadership roles. Activists were also aware that without Voting, most of their objectives were unattainable. For this reason, they decided to prioritize Activism for the right to vote for the, next 70 years. (Guy, 2024)

The Seneca Falls Declaration Gave rise to suffrage movement Stanton , 1958)(Tanton, 1948) After a long wait the white Woman got the right to vote in 1920 this wave was exclusively for white women. Mary Wollstonecraft ‘s Vindication of Women and John Stuart Mill’s The Suffragettes evolved this Wave in the western part. 10During this period, feminists like Voltairine de Cleyre and Margaret Sanger continued to advocate for women’s sexual, reproductive, and economic rights. (Beauvoir,1949/1956). Meanwhile, in 1854, Florence Nightingale introduced female nurses as Support personnel within the military.12 (Singh, 2018)

The main limitation of this wave was lack of inclusivity because it focused on the white middle Class and well educated women which connected this wave with racialism . working class(Singh, 2018), marginalized women’s struggles were often ignored even though they provided Much support . The measures which were used in this wave to advocate for women’s rights Includes petitions lobbing spreading awareness through writing , publications , public Demonstration, rallies and some organisations were also formed .

Second Wave :

The time period of this wave was from 1960’s to 1990’s . The main focus was on Reproductive Rights , Systematic patriarchy , Equality at workplace and Sexuality and ideas included women’s Autonomy as the feminist demanded that women shall have the autonomy to decide what to do With her body and what not . Their objectives included securing the legalization of abortion, Advocating for more accessible and safer contraception, and opposing birth control programs that were racist and classist.(Guy, 2024) The term “Second Wave was coined by Martha Lear  (Lear ,1968) in the year 1968. The issues included sexual harassment , domestic violence, marital rape, and , leading to Significant legal reforms . The second wave emerged mainly in UK and France. In the aftermath Of World War II, a significant socio-political movement emerged as women entered the labour Force in substantial numbers, thereby challenging entrenched societal conceptions of their roles Within the family, workplace, and broader community(Dominelli,2002)  This era witnessed the Development and proliferation of diverse strands of political feminism, such as Marxist Feminism, socialist feminism, and ecological feminism, which sought to address the multifaceted Dimensions of gender inequality (Jaggar , 1983) .The second wave began in the aftermath of Post-war turmoil and the breakdown of traditional social roles, emphasizing women’s roles in the Workforce and within the family environment.(Malinowska, 2020) Simone de Beauvoir’s Statement, “One is not born a woman, but becomes one”(Malinowska, 2020) 20 became a key Phrase symbolizing the movement’s push to challenge and transform the societal expectations And definitions of femininity.(Malinowska,2020)  Most influential and famous feminist of this Wave was Betty Friedan and her book Published in 1963, The Feminine Mystique is often Regarded as the catalyst for the second wave of feminism. Betty Friedan’s book brought attention To the growing sense of isolation and dissatisfaction experienced by American housewives during the post-World War II economic boom. (Guy, 2024) The astonishing fact about this wave was it was led by women of colour and developing countries . (Shayyal, 2024) The second wave was Shaped by poststructuralist, deconstruction, and psychoanalysis, focusing on the connection between the way womanhood is structured in social practices and media portrayals, and the lived Experiences of women.(Guy, 2024) The phrase “the personal is political” was propounded by The feminists of this wave for showcasing the influence of patriarchy and sexism even on private Lives of women . (Guy, 2024) (Munro, 2013) Second wave feminists adopted a radical stance, Aiming for swift social and political transformation while addressing global issues. Many aligned With socialist ideologies and participated in movements for peace, workers’ rights, and racial Equality. (Molyneux,2019) In 1973 abortion was legalized . (Guy, 2024) The main Achievements of this wave were the enforcement of Equal Pay Act ,1963( which was the first National law to tackle discrimination based on sex.) and Equal Credit opportunity Act ,1974 in US before this act men’s permission was mandatory for women to get loan . (Guy, 2024) The Astonishing fact about this wave was it was led by women of colour and developing countries .

Third wave :

The third wave emerged in 1990’s. The main focus was to promote intersectionality, genderIdentity and sexuality recognises that is women have different experience based on their race Sexuality ethnicity gender identity etc . The feminists of this wave emphasized personal choiceand rejected the idea of correct way to be a feminist . They critiqued previous feminist moments Emphasizing the experiences of women of colour and LGBTQ+ individuals. The concept of “third wave feminism” was introduced by American writer, feminist, and activist Rebecca Walker, the daughter of feminist Alice Walker, in her influential 1992 article “Becoming The Third Wave” (Walker,1992) .This wave is primarily driven by scholars and activists from Generation X, individuals born in the 1960s and 1970s in the developed world. In fact, many Third-wave feminists are the daughters of second-wave feminists (Munro,2013) It highlights Concerns related to heteronormativity and body positivity .(Kurtis,2016) Feminist of this wave Considers themselves as strong, able and assertive social agent and think that they have “less Sexism and more opportunities “ (Snyder,2008) than 1st and 2ndwave feminists. (Baumgardner,2000) Third-wave feminists seek a version of feminism tailored to their unique Societal contexts and the specific challenges they encounter. (Snyder,2008)“This wave is Believed to be shaped by postmodern theory “ 37Intersectionality as a idea of feminism was Introduced in 1989 by Crenshaw. Third-wave feminists, much like groups such as Queer Nation And Niggers With Attitude, have used a form of linguistic jiujitsu against their critics. Rather than Rejecting the stereotypes directed at them, they amplify them, starting with the term “girl” (Snyder,2008)”(Cochrane , 2013)They have been actively engaged in academics through its Interdisciplinary connections with Marxian psychoanalysis and post-structuralism.” The mother Feminists were considered to be more rigid and judgemental then the third wave feminists but the Mother feminist claimed something else. third wave families depict their mother favorites asantimale , antisex and anti and but in contrast the mother familists claim themselves as equal to Men, sexual pleasure as they desire it a d play with feminity. Feminist writer Rebecca Walker Shared that, in the past, being a feminist often felt like you had to fit into a rigid identity or way of living, leaving little room for individuality. This mindset sometimes created unnecessary divisions—like women being set against men, or Black people against white people As Third-wave feminists challenge the male/female gender binary and take a non-essentialist view of Gender, transgender individuals align more naturally with this wave than with the ideas of the Second wave(Snyder,2008) This wave is also considered as the micro politics of gender equality. (Singh,2018) It was a rebuttal to the opposition against the efforts and actions initiated during the second wave (Singh,2018) This wave’s feminists promoted feminists new generations and Gave pathway for future waves .  

Fourth wave :

The timeline of this wave is from 2012 to present. The focus was on digital activism and social Media . They also focused on the issues include confronting sexual harassment and body Shaming and utilizing platform like Twitter and Instagram for mobilization . (Four Waves of Feminism, 2024)Generation Y (millennials) and Generation Z are the feminists of this wave (DeChane , 2019)  (Turner,2015) This wave usually based on online interaction between women .(Rampton,2015) . Movements of this phase are #Metoo and #TimeUp movements also named As Hashtag feminism by Ealasaid Munro in 2008 (Blevins,2018) #Fem2 # Yesallwomen # Nomore #HeforShe #EverydaySexism . Ealasaid Munro, in Feminism: A Fourth Wave?, Highlights that the fourth wave of feminism has been driven by the internet and social media, Which promote a call-out culture. Women are using technology to create networks that aid in Collective organization .(Solomon,2009)

Conclusion

Patriarchy is so ingrained in society, that it has sustained injustices that continue to influence the lives of women. The oppressive aspect of patriarchal institutions is highlighted by the systematic subjection of women through limited autonomy, socioeconomic constraints, and other forms of gender-based violence. As was mentioned, women’s subordination is not only accidental; rather, it is purposefully ingrained in the systems of power that control both the public and private domains. Honor killings, domestic violence, and sexual assault serve as sobering reminders of how patriarchal standards restrict women’s agency and uphold male domination.

Nonetheless, revolutionary frameworks to confront and demolish patriarchy have been made available by the development of feminist theory and the increasing awareness of intersectionality. A continuous fight for equality and autonomy is reflected in feminist movements, from the first wave’s demand for suffrage to the fourth wave’s modern internet activism. Every wave of feminism has made a distinct contribution to changing how society views gender by promoting both legal and cultural changes that recognize the variety of women’s experiences (Rampton, 2015).

Fostering an inclusive and intersectional perspective that acknowledges the various axes of oppression faced by women across race, class, and sexual orientation is necessary to imagine a society free from patriarchal restrictions (Crenshaw, 1989). Reforms in education and policy must be combined to upend long-standing gender stereotypes and enable women to assert their legitimate place in all areas of life.

Even while progress has been made, the fight for gender equality is still ongoing. Collective effort, persistent lobbying, and a rethinking of social structures are necessary for true freedom from patriarchy to guarantee that women are no longer seen as secondary but rather as equal contributors to the advancement of societies. We can only aspire for a future free from systematic oppression, violence, and discrimination against women by implementing such revolutionary initiatives.

References

1 Mohajan, H. & Munich Personal RePEc Archive. (2022). Four Waves of Feminism: a blessing for global