Mansi, Jeanette and Akash

How Diplomacy is Undermining Good Governance in Anarchy: A Case of Climate Change

Introduction

In today’s international system, anarchy persists as a dominant feature—a state where no central authority governs the interactions between nations. This situation often leads to feeble governance on a global scale, where self-interest takes precedence over collective well-being. Diplomacy, a tool meant to foster cooperation, has become a vehicle for self-centred actions by developed countries, ignoring the larger crises such as climate change. Instead of addressing pressing universal concerns, these nations focus on strengthening their own positions, selling weapons in war-prone regions, and fostering conflicts for economic and political gains.

In this article, aims to explore the challenges countries face within this anarchic international system, particularly the role of diplomacy in exacerbating inequality and self-centric behaviour. It illustrates how diplomacy often prioritizes national interests over global needs, ultimately impacting both weaker and stronger economies.

 Key Challenges in the International System:

Feeble Partnerships Among Nations

The lack of robust partnerships among nations is a critical issue. Instead of uniting to address shared challenges, countries prioritize their own agendas. This fragmented approach weakens the global response to crises such as climate change and conflicts. Collaboration is needed to address global challenges. In international relations, states are primary actors, thus they ought to take full responsibility in addressing global issues. For instance, if one country is unable to address global challenges such as climate change, there will be a need to collaborate with another country, failing which challenges will escalate and no progress will be made. The negligence of global governance over domestic affairs presents a persistent challenge to an interdependent and interconnected international system. When states are faced with internal pressures such as national security threats, political instability, and economic depressions, they tend to isolate themselves from global governments, international organizations and alliances.

Self-Centric Diplomacy by Developed Countries

Developed nations often leverage their diplomatic power to secure their own interests, sidelining the needs of underdeveloped and developing countries. For example, arms trade in conflict zones fuels instability while disregarding the principle of fostering peace and security or Isolating themselves from global responsibilities for Instance The USA was never part of the League of Nations, it prioritized its national interests, most historians hold that the League operated much less effectively without USA than it would have otherwise https://history.state.gov/milestones/1914-1920/league This was the same period when USA was compelled by internal factors to adopt the isolation foreign policy, it neglected its duties and responsibilities in the League of Nations after declining an invitation to be a signatory.

Security dilemmas

Despite the efforts towards cooperation, underlying issues like enduring security dilemmas will always be a hindrance to global governance if not addressed. Security dilemma makes states or countries view each other as potential threats, consequently, there is an element of mistrust and insecurity within the international system. Suspicions often propel actions that fuel tensions, such as the arms race, and nuclear weapons. The Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 explicitly explains this phenomenon. Despite these two rivalries being members of the United Nations (Russia, is among the 5 permanent members, and Ukraine is just a member of the UN), an international organization that primarily aims to maintain global peace and security, they engaged in war for more than 2 years. The Russia-Ukraine war has tainted the UN’s reputation, portrayed it to be a toothless dog, and demonstrated its weakness in enforcing international law. The dispute has also proved that international cooperation is fragile to such a point. Fragmentation within global governance hinders effective problem-solving, increases instability within the international system and leads to missed opportunities of collaboration and success. Even the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Paris Agreements fail to execute their goals and meet their objectives to reduce carbon emissions and halt climate change because of lack of unity, mistrust and prioritization of national sovereignty over global collaboration. The lack of enforcement mechanisms and the reluctance of developed countries to commit to their financial agreements to assist developing countries in transitioning to eco-friendly renewable resources has made it impossible for countries to reduce their carbon emission. Consequently, it implies that these international organizations are incapable of mitigating global challenges because the lack of trust and cooperation. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/chapter/chapter-14/

 The Plight of Underdeveloped Countries

Underdeveloped nations, already grappling with poverty and weak governance, face compounded challenges due to the neglect of global powers. Almost all underdeveloped, poor countries are among the least emitters or nearly emit no greenhouse gases (GHGs), yet they are not the least affected. These countries face catastrophic events due to climate change, followed by adversities like famine, crime, and rape. They not only lack resources and technologies to mitigate poor climate but also lack resources for a better lifestyle. Moreover, poor governance exacerbates the situation, bringing the worst out of ongoing challenges for instance lack of basic resources like food, water, shelter, and an effective criminal protection system. Here is an example of per capita carbon dioxide emission worldwide of in 2023 of three countries. Bhutan with 2.18, Indonesia with 2.64, Botswana 2.51 whereas countries like UAE, USA, Russia are the largest producer of GHGs with the record of 24.1, 14.45 and 12.57 respectively. CO₂ emissions by country per capita 2023 | Statista

Despite having a minimal contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, many underdeveloped countries face severe challenges due to climate change. Take Bhutan, for example—a country that has contributed very little to global emissions, yet has faced significant hardships. Bhutan is susceptible to earthquakes and has experienced twelve of them in the last half-century, including a 2009 earthquake that resulted in $97 million in losses. The country’s disaster management capabilities are still in their infancy and evolving.

Additionally, mobilizing resources from other development partners or external sources is cumbersome and not always forthcoming. There is also a lack of technological skills and understanding of disaster risk management practices among the population.
Overview of Disaster Management in Bhutan – Guardian of Peace

Underdeveloped countries, therefore, find it challenging to combat climate change effectively and need guidance from more capable nations and leaders. I believe stronger economies should recognize the urgency of the situation and lead efforts toward good governance at an international level. This means fulfilling commitments and showing genuine interest in one (International) not just as one (National).

While countries are helpful, this article highlights the challenges that weaken partnerships. The core message is the emergence of strengthened partnerships and good governance at a global level in the face of anarchy.

The Role of Developing Countries

Developing nations often act as bridges in the international system. However, they face the dual challenge of addressing their domestic needs while navigating the demands of both underdeveloped and developed nations.  On the other hand managing it all, hand in hand, developing country like India with the GDP of US$3.57 Trillion (2023). India is currently working on strengthening the relationships, partnership with countries, G20 is the esteemed example. In the case of Bhutan, India and Bhutan are developing a bilateral co-operation in the area of climate change, waste management etc. Where India stated that, ‘It want s to engage with Bhutan on environmental related issues including climate change”. India and Bhutan sign MoU for developing cooperation in the areas of Environment

India is emerging as a leader helping countries build their capabilities, learning from countries. It is upholding good governance at international level through the initiatives like International Solar Alliance (ISA), Mission LIFE, and renewable energy Policies. At COP29 in Baku, Azerbaijan, India made headlines by rejecting a finance deal proposed by wealthy nations.  India criticized the lack of genuine commitment from affluent countries. This bold stance highlights India’s advocacy for equitable climate financing and its determination to hold developed nations accountable. India’s Growing Global Influence in Climate Action and Sustainability.  I am using India as an example in this article, and I hope for the active participation of such countries in the global arena.

 Global Cooperation and the Diplomatic developed countries

Despite the challenges, history offers examples of successful international cooperation. The Kyoto Protocol was a landmark agreement in the fight against climate change. The rules and regulations of the KP emanate it’s effectiveness. The Kyoto Protocol (KP) has been in force since 2005 and enjoys almost universal membership (189 states and the EU). It contains specific legally binding targets. It supports emission reduction in industrialized countries and allows the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in developing countries. Policies to promote low emission technologies include financial support to developing countries from public and private sources amounting to about US$100 billion per year. In 30–40% of CDM projects, foreign technology was used, and investment in renewable energy in developing countries rose to US$70 billion per year by 2011. Some Chinese and Indian manufacturers became among the top global suppliers. As of July 1, 2012, a total of about 10,000 CDM projects had been proposed, with about 8,300 still actively pursued. About half of these (4296 projects) have been registered by the CDM Executive Board and for 1620 projects Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) were issued. In total they represent a reduction of about 0.22 GtCO2eq per year in the period 2008–2012 and about 0.9 GtCO2eq per year from 2013 to 2020. Another interesting case is the destruction of HFC-23 from HCFC-22 production facilities, A number of HCFC-22 plants in the world have installed these devices. It is thus very hard to argue that this cannot be seen as ‘state of the art’. Nevertheless, HFC-23 destruction at existing plants in, e.g., China, India, and Korea was approved as a CDM project.

The Kyoto Protocol set a milestone in the history of global partnership. It promoted the growth of developing countries through financial support, CDM projects, and investments, and allowed developed countries to use their resources sustainably. However, it does not seem fit for the future as CDM was not delivering enough reduction in emissions. Additionally, developed countries like the USA, Russia, and Japan were reluctant to continue this model. For example, the US withdrew from the KP under the presidentship of George w Bush. The legacy of the Kyoto Protocol: a view from the policy world – Metz – 2013 – WIREs Climate Change – Wiley Online Library

Another the most substantive achievement is the adoption of the ‘Kyoto 2’ protocol (It is the Kyoto second commitment between 2013-2020. In this period, EU, some other European countries and Australia have agreed to make further emissions cuts with a jointly 20 % reduction target) running until 2020 when the new regime is supposed to be operational. Comparing the two protocols, however, the process has moved backwards more recently, as there are fewer countries with legally binding obligations today than in 2005 when the Kyoto Protocol came into force. Kyoto 2 is little more than a ‘EU+’ protocol. Until a new regime is in place there are no legally binding commitments for some eighty-five per cent of the global emissions. The Climate Regime: A Few Achievements but Many Challenges – FNIhttps://www.fni.no/publications/the-climate-regime-a-few-achievements-but-many-challenges#:~:text=During%20its%20more%20than%20twenty%20years%20of%20existence,but%20with%20little%20practical%20significance%20for%20emissions%20reductions.

By 2015, the Paris Agreement built on the legacy of the Kyoto Protocol, aiming to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius, with efforts to keep it under 1.5 degrees. The Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) in the Paris Agreement emphasize equality and prevent free-riding countries, a significant issue in the Kyoto Protocol. While NDCs are helpful in this way, they can leave developing and underdeveloped countries dependent, as developed countries often either withdraw their commitments or fail to fulfil them. A recent example is COP29, where developed countries offered $350 billion instead of the proposed $1 trillion, and the recent US exit from global climate change cooperation. These actions highlight the lack of cooperation and the adversities it can bring in the future, reflecting a loss of ethics that promotes self-interest.

As of 2021, nearly 200 countries have pledged to achieve carbon neutrality by the second half of the century, marking significant progress in global climate action. Nevertheless, the achievements of previous cooperation efforts come with their own challenges, which need to be addressed in the future.

The Need for Good Governance

To address the challenges posed by anarchy, good governance at a global level is essential. This requires:

1. Strengthening Partnerships: Nations must engage in constant interaction and collaboration to build trust and mutual understanding. Constructivism emphasizes the importance of effective communication in addressing wars, conflicts, and epidemics. During the COVID-19 pandemic, nations demonstrated this through virtual talks, showcasing global cooperation, communication, and good governance despite adversities.

Effective communication is also crucial for international relations. The lack of trust and political differences between SAARC member nations have hindered the organization’s effectiveness. Furthermore, the reluctance of developed countries to adhere to their Kyoto Protocol commitments and the COP29 final proposal by developed countries are prime examples of poor communication and partnerships. Such governance should be avoided.

Strengthening international partnerships requires avoiding these pitfalls and fostering sound relationships through constant interaction and clear communication.

2. Ethics in International Relations: A renewed focus on ethical behaviour in diplomacy can help foster a sense of shared responsibility. For instance, India’s values for Vasudhaiva kutumbakam, which mean “One Earth, One Family, One Future’, This depicts India’s Sanskriti and Cultural values that India aims to share with world, The country used it as it’s theme in G20 Presidency in 2023. This explains, how each and every country has its value for the greater good, The goal is same so why not the paths too? Overview of G20 | Ministry Of Earth Scienceshttps://moes.gov.in/g20-india-2023/moes-g20?language_content_entity=en

Achieving Climate Change Mitigation Goals

1. Emergence of Good Ideas and Policies: Innovative and inclusive policies are needed to address global challenges. Countries should adopt good policies that helps in adapting the climate change. Disaster risk Management programmes should be led by Multipolar countries. UN Agreement like the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. Organizations like G20, International Solar Alliance, Organization for economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), National adaptation plans (NAP), Multilateral Development Banks (MDB). Global partnership can also be seen in the wake of G7. Strengthening adaptation-mitigation linkages for a low-carbon, climate-resilient future | PreventionWeb

Policies should be used to mitigate climate change like Reforestation, urban planning [that includes green expansion in urban spaces, like Parks, Green roofs to protect cities from extreme heat, green transport strategy example Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) in South Africa, Promoting Cycling example Peru in 2010 promoted the use of cycles. World Bank Group. (2023, October 19).], water management, while the general water management requires managing adaptation to climate change, which gives solution to water scarcity. Thus, Hydropower project, tidal projects will contribute to reducing GHGs emissions from traditional power sources. Policies of Solar and Tidal energy installation.

Innovation and investments in environmentally sound infrastructure and technologies can reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and enhance resilience to climate change (very high confidence). For example, investments in low-carbon and carbon-neutral energy technologies can reduce the energy intensity of economic development, the carbon intensity of energy, GHG emissions, and the long-term costs of mitigation. A such initiative lead by European Environment Agency that aims for a net 55% o greater reduction below 1990 levels by 2030 and Climate neutrality by 2050 Climate change mitigation: reducing emissions. (2024, November 4).

The Role of Diplomacy in Good Governance

To foster good governance in an anarchic system, a new kind of diplomacy must emerge—one that prioritizes collective action over individual gain. This involves:

• Recognising the previous failures and causes for Ineffectiveness of multiple failures. For example, the failure of UNFCC with Kyoto Protocol and Paris agreement, it is not like Member countries are always incapable, it is about the political will and determined will emerging from the member countries. Countries cooperations, skills to negotiate are high in terms of arms trade and conflict prevention with peace talks. For example, the core countries are majorly working in the field of peace by favouring a country which is opposition country to the other core competitive country, to expand its soft power domination. So, it is not just about incapability of the country rather it’s the will or Diplomatic domination. Even if a common conclusion comes, then the mistrust and incompatibility between core Countries’ diplomacy leads to biased conclusion that doesn’t serves common interest.
•  To overcome, Ensuring equal representation and participation of all nations in decision-making processes is Important. Equal presentation should be achieved through addressing drawbacks in achieving climate mitigation from different regions example- Market failures around the use of Renewable energy, Inability to skill and understand technology. Another important way to practice equal representation is presence of political will of one country, if a country is driven by national interest only than there will be no use of good negotiation and cooperation. Diplomacy that only favours one partner is not a thing of appreciation in this article rather it put emphasize on diplomacy that asserts common interest, thus, a good negotiation amongst countries. For that different perspective of national interest is to be incorporated that instills that the nation would survive If the world would survive and the world wouldn’t survive only with one action or actions of one participant. To recover world from climate change, using it as an example, To recover Globe Governance, participation of each from the Globe is required only that will help National and International.  Understanding Climate Diplomacy: Building diplomatic capacity and systems to avoid dangerous climate change. Mabey, N., Gallagher, L., & Born, C. (2013).
• The last thing that is vital for good Diplomacy is promoting transparency and accountability in international agreements.

Conclusion

The current state of diplomacy often undermines good governance by prioritizing the interests of a few powerful nations. However, the need for global cooperation has never been more urgent. By addressing challenges such as climate change and fostering ethical and inclusive diplomacy, the international community can transform anarchy into an opportunity for collective progress. I used climate change as a case study in the article, In which in the beginning I counted on the achievements of global Cooperation through Kyoto protocol that witnessed the mass participation with 189 states and The EU, Furthering with the Paris Agreement that built on the legacy of the KP, these Regimes could have achieved good governance but failed to do so. However, the failure wasn’t a stop for countries to work on one their collective potential.  In the rest of the article this can be concluded that with further efforts in the Adapting- Mitigation of climate change through good ideas and policies leading to climate resilient future, Incorporation of ethics in Policies, diplomacy, with the features of good diplomacy with milestone examples and article’s suggested ideologies are aimed to overcome the challenges faced by countries through the anarchy, across the international system, to strengthen cooperation and attaining good governance In anarchy. Altogether keeping the article Climate change specific to give an explanatory structure to the Idea of the article. Last but not the least using Anarchy as to address the explanation of the cause of challenges that is driven by nationalist interest. However, In the later paragraphs I try to reshape the perspective of Anarchy as it is not just the explanation of the self-interested behaviour of nations rather it can be seen as a the potential cause for Unity, emergence of combined results that can be bring greater good then the good governance, achieved through genuine partnerships and innovative solutions, is the key to a sustainable and equitable future for all.

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