Authors – Abhishek Kulkarni, Samriddhi Jain, Swati Kumari

Keywords – Françafrique, neo-colonialism, Military intervention, migration patterns, cultural assimilation, francophonie, post-colonial influence, CFA franc system, colonial legacy

Introduction

The shadow of colonialism looms large over Africa. As Amuwo (1999) correctly points out, this legacy of control has outlasted independence and continues to influence the future of the continent, and nowhere is it more complex and enduring than in the complex relationships between France and its former colonies. From the 17th century, French colonial rule created lasting patterns of dominance and influence across almost all parts of Africa until the mid-20th century. However, even after relinquishing their colonies, France continues to shape the contemporary landscape of Africa. This paper will look at how France has directly influenced security and military, migration patterns, and cultural transformations that have taken place in Africa.

Understanding the interactions between the military, migration, and culture is critical for analysing the continuing influence of France on Africa. These three domains reflect both draconian colonial policies and the contemporary power climate, presenting insight into how colonial legacies dictate and persist in modern Franco-African relations. As Thelma et al. (2024) have written, French colonial policies were characterised by forced assimilation and resource exploitation aimed at creating a “Greater France”. These policies led to the creation of lasting institutional frameworks that continue to influence security, population movements and cultural expression.

The interconnectedness of these domains becomes apparent in the post-World War II era. During this period, France’s struggle to maintain its status as a world power made its African empire essential for recovery (Bozo & Hensher, 2016; Rempe, 2011). Under the direction of President Charles de Gaulle, France created a system that allowed for nominal independence while retaining substantial power through what academics refer to as “neo-colonialism.”

This research employs historical as well as contemporary analysis to examine how these three dimensions have evolved. By analysing the military, the paper looks at the migration patterns, which have, in turn, influenced cultural shifts in Africa. Three arguments are presented in this paper: first, security dynamics show how French involvement in African affairs has persisted; second, migration patterns reflect historical ties as well as current economic realities; and third, cultural transformation provides a lens through which to view both African resistance and colonial assimilation policies.

Background and Moving Forward

France’s relationship with Africa has been characterized by its colonial past and persistent post-colonial policies. In particular, this system of French control is known as “Françafrique” (Cohen, 2022, p. 3; Martin, 1985; Renou, 2002; Smith, 2013, pp. 164–166). This system was established in the 1960s after France had given independence to its African colonies. Its purpose was to maintain French influence and dominance through political, economic, and military means, all while securing access to strategic natural resources and preserving France’s status as a global power (Martin, 1985; Profant, 2010; Staniland, 1987).

The Françafrique policy operated through multiple channels. These were continued military presence and interventions, defence agreements, preferential trade relationships, and monetary control through the CFA franc system (Renou, 2002; Smith, 2013). Between 1963 and 1997, France intervened militarily in Africa on over 30 separate occasions and has maintained several bases to protect French interests (Brown, 2024; Renou, 2002). Scholars have also highlighted how French educational policy has also served as a tool in furthering their influence. Mechanisms such as mandatory use of French in schools, banning indigenous languages, and centralized testing systems prove the same (Johnson, 1987, pp. 271–275).

In recent years, there has been a significant shift in France’s African policy, particularly under Presidents Sarkozy and Macron, who have attempted to move away from the Françafrique relationships (Brown, 2024; Cohen, 2022). That said, the core objectives of maintaining influence and securing natural resources remain largely the same (Brown, 2024; Renou, 2002). Contemporary literature also identifies several challenges to France’s traditional influence in Africa: rising competition from China and India, growth of anti-French sentiment, and increasing African agency in international relations (Brown, 2024; Melly & Darracq, 2013; Smith, 2013). This paper will address how military, migration, and culture have been affected in Africa due to French influence.

Security and Military

The influence of France on Africa in terms of security and military affairs reflects France’s legacy of colonialism very clearly. Through defence agreements, military bases, and security partnerships with and within former colonies, France maintains significant influence over these nations’ strategic decisions, access to natural resources, and geopolitical dynamics. This military presence has far-reaching implications, from regional security to migration patterns, the latter of which will be explored in depth later in this analysis. Since granting independence, France has maintained exclusive military influence on defence agreements signed between 1960 and 1961, which gave legitimacy to France’s military presence in African countries (Vallin, 2015). This military presence allows France to exercise considerable control over its former colonies’ internal as well as external decisions, giving them an unfair advantage and creating an imbalanced power dynamic that fully prioritises French interests over local interests.

The extensive military influence manifested substantially. During the Cold War, France made eight defence agreements with former colonies (Renou, 2002). Depending on how one defines military intervention, France has militarily intervened in the continent 19 to 34 times (Melly & Darracq, 2013; Renou, 2002). Some major interventions happened in Mali, which is called “Operation Serval”, Gabon in 1964, the Central African Republic in 1979 and the Sahel Region as well, with “Operation Barkhane” (Afsar & El-Hayanı, 2023). In the late 1970s, France had around 14,000 troops deployed in more than twenty African states (Lellouche & Moisi, 1979), though by February 2013, this number had come down to around 7000 military personnel (Melly & Darracq, 2013).

The French government often justifies these interventions as centres around maintaining stability, counter-terrorism, and peacekeeping. However, it is clear that these are attempts at maintaining the status quo and furthering neo-colonial influence. Instead of stabilizing these regions, French military interventions have typically increased instability by strengthening factors that directly contribute to conflict (Powell, 2016). France has even supported regimes beneficial to French interests and participated in coups, such as their role in the 1961 coup in Côte d’Ivoire (Afsar & El-Hayanı, 2023).

France’s military presence also disrupts African migration patterns. It creates a paradoxical relationship with migration through two key mechanisms. First are the military operations, like Operation Barkhane in the Sahel, which, although aimed at stabilisation, can directly displace populations who flee militarily active areas, potentially leading them toward France. The second factor is the enduring cultural and linguistic influence that French military personnel, bases, and operations have on the local population, which in turn influences the aspirations of migrants. The French military presence functions as a hypothetical migratory conduit to France. The tensions between France and its former colonies have been exacerbated by these migration pressures. 

Although France was able to sustain its influence on the continent for decades, the French military presence in Africa has encountered substantial obstacles and witnessed a significant transformation in recent years. Throughout francophone West Africa, there is a profound resentment towards France that is rooted in French arrogance and colonial history. The military presence has also become more contentious within France. Brown (2024) notes this is mainly due to France spending up to €1 billion per year on Operation Barkhane (2014-2022) and losing French soldiers during operations.

French policy has also undergone substantial changes as a result of the increasing domestic and global tensions. This has had a direct effect on the military-civilian relationship. According to Smith (2013), France’s military presence in Africa has significantly decreased since the late 1980s, marked by the closure of three of its six permanent bases, a reduction in military advisers from 925 to 264 between 1990 and 2008, and a halving of its military assistance budget between the mid-1990s and 2008. After Emmanuel Macron came to power, the French military’s influence in Africa has also lessened. This is reflected by military withdrawals from Mali (2022), Burkina Faso (2023), and Niger (2023) (Tull, 2023). France is increasingly conducting its military operations within international frameworks rather than unilaterally. Nevertheless, the legacy of unilateral interventions and neo-imperial and neo-colonial perceptions continue to influence both diplomatic relations and public sentiment across the continent.

Migration

In a period of accelerated globalization, human migration has reached an unprecedented level and is certainly a defining characteristic of our era. Migratory movements have been a part and parcel of African history, with the continent having gone through several such movements both voluntarily and involuntarily. Migration policy during French colonial rule played a significant role in shaping the movement of people within and beyond Africa’s borders, reflecting the labour exploitation, economic dependency, and cultural exchange between France and its former colonies.

“Immigration is one of the biggest political challenges now and in the near future because it will not stop. We must be clear: this challenge, which creates a moral and political crisis for Europe, is the result of an African crisis. Furthermore, this crisis is, first and foremost, due to the inadequate security context. These migrants, these exiles, arrive through traffickers. The emotions they give rise to in Europe sometimes make us forget the terrible organized crime going on in the background.” (Ministère de l’Europe et des Affaires étrangères, 2019)

Tragic occurrences in the Mediterranean Sea have fueled the idea that there will be a global Afro-European migration system since the 1990s, where thousands of African migrants have drowned while trying to reach Europe. On the one hand, an undifferentiated perception of the diversity of African movements is encouraged by the dearth of information and data on African migration. However, the diversity of European reception contexts is sometimes obscured by the need to govern African migration at the European level and the existence of a shared European border (Beauchemin et al., 2020).

Although migration within Africa has increased recently, only 27 per cent of African migrants live in Europe, making up less than 15 per cent of the total migrant population in all other regions except Africa (Teye & Oucho, 2023). In addition to the increased demand for labour in vital economic sectors like mining and construction, fishing, and agriculture, as well as services like retail trade, health care, domestic work, restaurants, and hotels, this is also partially caused by the escalation of inequality, climate change, trade, and demographic imbalances (Teye & Oucho, 2023).

The early and widening gap in development between and among states is the main reason for the voluntary migration of people within and across countries in recent years. The causes and consequences of such a movement have social, political, economic, and demographic components (Adepoju, 1998). The migrant, the region or country of origin, and the region or country of destination are the three main actors involved in migration by definition. African governments place a low priority on migration in their national policy agendas, in contrast to the European Union (EU), which views it as a high priority. Europe and international institutions determine the migration agenda in many African nations, especially those from which migrants come and go.

Thus, it is imperative to address the underlying factors that drive migration to manage and reduce migration from Africa effectively. Governments should focus on limiting migration out of Africa by promoting economic development. This can be done by generating employment, encouraging small businesses, and investing heavily in agriculture. It is important that the government addresses gender-based migration and empowers women by implementing gender-responsive policies and enhancing education and skills development, particularly in accordance with the requirements of the local labour market. Even though many African countries have put migration frameworks and policies into place, better coordination, capacity building, and resources are needed to effectively address the root causes of migration and take advantage of its development potential.

Art and Culture

The history of relations between France and Africa also enabled them to influence each other through their own forms of culture. This allows us to illuminate the concept that the cultural influence was not one-sided, as most would perceive with respect to French domination, but two.

The French Colonial Education Policy focused on creating a small, westernised, loyal African elite, negating any indigenous cultural aspect and restricting broader access to education (Johnson, 1987). Education was used to sustain African neo-colonial relationships by reinforcing French language and cultural influence through formal and informal networks (Martin, 1985). With its diverse, multicultural nations lacking a common language, Africa found the French language to serve as a unifying force, and pride in mastering it drove the development of a vibrant pan-African literary tradition (Africapractice, 2024).

L’Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), founded in 1970, is a key forum for France’s cultural influence in Africa, promoting the shared language of French and universal values, with nearly 274 million Francophones across 84 member states. Additionally, the continued presence of around 30,000 French expatriates in West Africa further strengthens cultural ties despite the OIF’s past political influence being largely ineffective (Mulayim, 2020). In recent years, rising anti-French sentiment and a shift towards English in education, as seen in countries like Mali and Rwanda, reflect Africa’s growing desire for autonomy from former colonial powers (Africapractice, 2024). In addition to linguistic ties, France has fostered cultural connections through initiatives like the French Institute of South Africa and large-scale events like the Africa2020 Season, which celebrate African creativity and promote collaboration.

The French Institute of South Africa fosters cultural ties and bilateral relations with Southern Africa through multidisciplinary exchanges, innovation programs, and social cohesion and economic inclusion support. Foreign exchange programs in France offer students of all ages immersive cultural experiences, language improvement, and experiential learning through community engagement and cultural activities (Foreign Exchange Programs in France | EF Global Site (English), n.d.). The Africa2020 Season, launched by France in 2017, showcased contemporary African culture through over 1,500 events across 81 cities, promoting collaboration, innovation, youth engagement, and women’s contributions to arts, science, and entrepreneurship (Ministère de l’Europe et des Affaires étrangères, 2021).

Cultural initiatives usually strengthen bilateral ties. France’s historical relationship with Africa has significantly influenced artists. Which perfectly blends African culture into European artistic practices. Key figures like Picasso, Matisse, and others incorporated African aesthetics into their works, reshaping Western art. The “Les Demoiselles d’Avignon” and “The Dance” reflect Africa’s impact on modernist movements. The Benin Bronzes and the return of the Ranavalona III crown highlight the ongoing debate on restitution and colonial legacy. France’s repatriation efforts, led by Macron, underscore the shifting dynamics of cultural exchange as African art increasingly returns to its origins, fostering new artistic dialogues and challenging colonial narratives (Vock, 2023). Sculptures, statues, and carvings symbolise France and Africa’s artistic and historical ties. From African masks inspiring modernist art to the Benin Bronzes and Ousmane Sow’s works, these creations reflect cultural exchange, colonial legacies, and ongoing discussions about heritage, identity, and repatriation, preserving the shared history of both regions (Daniels, 2024).

Beyond visual art, the interplay of France-Africa relations finds expression in literature, where African writers have navigated themes of identity, cultural resistance, and postcolonial struggles, enriching global literary traditions. Early African writers like Ahmadou Mapaté Diagne and Bakary Diallo depicted the tension between African traditions and Western colonisation. The Negritude movement, spearheaded by Aimé Césaire and Léopold Senghor, celebrated African identity, emphasising pride in African heritage and opposing colonial oppression. Later, writers such as Mongo Beti and Ousmane Sembène, through works like Le Pauvre Christ de Bomba and God’s Bits of Wood, critically examined colonialism, the complexities of cultural transformation, and the struggle for postcolonial identity. These writers contributed to a rich body of work that reflects Africa’s fight for autonomy and cultural preservation against colonial forces (Gunner & Scheub, 2024).

Additional Insights

The relationship between France and Africa has profoundly influenced the scientific and research landscapes of both regions, blending history, culture, and modern collaboration into a unique partnership. 

During the late 19th century, French colonial expansion into Africa laid the groundwork for scientific inquiry. Institutions like the Académie Malgache and the Comité d’Études Historiques et Scientifiques de l’AOF were established to document African societies, shaping disciplines like anthropology, geography, and history. However, this period also reflected an imbalance of power, as indigenous knowledge systems were often overlooked or framed through a Western lens. 

Following World War II, the dynamics shifted. France introduced advanced scientific tools and innovations to its former colonies, fostering progress in areas such as engineering, infrastructure, and transportation. Yet, challenges like brain drain, inadequate funding, and infrastructural deficits persisted, slowing Africa’s ability to fully leverage these advancements. 

In recent years, the partnership has evolved into a more collaborative and equitable exchange. Programs like the Hubert Curien Partnerships foster joint research between France and African nations like Kenya and South Africa, empowering young researchers. Key French institutions such as the IRD, CIRAD, and CNRS play a pivotal role in training scientists and facilitating knowledge exchange (Ministère de l’Europe et des Affaires étrangères, 2022).

Despite challenges, including political instability and limited infrastructure, initiatives like the EU’s ARISE program are driving sustainable development and innovation. Africa’s unique perspectives and France’s technological expertise are creating solutions for global issues like climate change and food security (Ministère de l’Europe et des Affaires étrangères, 2022).

This relationship showcases how historical ties have transformed into a forward-looking partnership. By blending Africa’s rich heritage with French research methodologies, both regions are creating a legacy of scientific excellence, innovation, and mutual growth, shaping the future of global science. 

Conclusion

The impact of the French colonial legacy can be felt prominently through the three crucial dimensions: security and military, migration, and art and culture. This paper has displayed how these aspects play a role and intersect to shape a contemporary Franco-African society. The military dimension reveals the persistence of the French through defence agreements and interventions. However, recent years have not been the same, with them withdrawing and a growing anti-French sentiment. Migration patterns showcase historical and current economic scenarios, highlighting the diaspora dynamics between France and its former colonies. The cultural domain displays influence and resistance, particularly seen in artistic expression, literature and education.

As the relations between France and Africa continue to evolve, new challenges and opportunities will emerge. Future success of Franco-African relations depends on the ability of such relations to balance historical inequalities and establish cooperative, mutually rewarding partnerships. Such is necessary because a new global world order, emerging African self-determination, and changes from the Cold War era necessitate a reassessment of relationships. Therefore, now more than ever, it is hugely important to achieve a deeper understanding of how colonial legacies continue to influence the African space and what moves must be made to ensure more sustainable and equitable policies between the French and the Africans.

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