Economic Exploitation and Violence against Women in South Asia
By Saima Shamim, Yukti Goyal, Sharon Lugun, Kasturi Chakraborty, Adrita Dutta and Sanandita Mukherjee
Abstract
This study investigates how traditional and cultural practices in South Asian countries fuel ongoing violence against women, and how this violence, in turn, impacts the wider socio-economic landscape of South Asian countries. It looks at issues like son preference, child marriage, female infanticide, and the unequal treatment of women in areas like nutrition, education, and health, all through the lens of patriarchal social structures.
The main goal of this study is to explore the long-term effects of violence against women on national productivity and GDP throughout South Asia, making the case that gender-based violence is not just a violation of human rights but also a significant developmental issue. By including Bangladesh as a case study within the larger regional context, the paper aims to uncover how overlapping factors like caste and class intensify the vulnerabilities faced by women.
By including a comparative policy analysis with Scandinavian countries, renowned for their gender-equal governance and inclusive economic models, the paper aims to demonstrate how forward-thinking interventions can empower women and enhance national economic performance. The paper wraps up with tailored regional policy recommendations, calling for structural reforms, inclusive leadership, and gender-sensitive public policies. It stresses that academic research should drive practical strategies aimed at reducing gender inequality and unlocking the full economic potential of South Asian nations.
What is Economic Exploitation?
The term “Economic Exploitation” was introduced by Marx, and it refers to a relationship wherein the distribution of economic wealth is disproportional, i.e., the worker doesn’t receive an adequate amount of income or entitlement. This phenomenon of Economic Exploitation includes elements of gender wage gap, unpaid labour, informal economy and feminisation of poverty. Though Economic Exploitation is visible globally, it is particularly pronounced in South Asia, which is amongst the most populous parts of the world. This economic exploitation is often deeply rooted in structural inequalities, traditional gender roles, and the lack of social security. Women bear the brunt of most of these injustices as they face limited access to education, healthcare and employment opportunities. This creates a cycle of poverty and dependence that is difficult to break.
As the region moves towards economic growth and globalisation, it is more imperative than ever to consider how economic policy and labour conditions affect women in these countries. Understanding the multifaceted nature of economic exploitation in South Asia is essential not only for intellectual debate but also for the creation of inclusive and equitable developmental policies.
Forms of Economic Exploitation:
Though Economic Exploitation occurs in various forms, three of the broadest forms include:
- Wage Gap and Unequal Pay-
Gender wage gaps refer to the stark difference in earnings between men and women, often reflected as a percentage which shows that women are generally the ones to earn less than men. A host of factors like educational attainment, occupational segregation, experience and discrimination play a vital role in influencing this disparity. According to a report by ‘Progress of the World’s Women: Transforming Economies, Realising Rights’, between 1990 and 2013, women’s labour force participation rate (LFPR) in South Asia decreased from 35 to 30 per cent, resulting in a gender gap in labour force participation. This decline is primarily a result of lower participation rates from India, as not only do younger women stay back in education, but also there exists a general lack of employment opportunities for women. The gender pay gap in South Asia is at 33% as opposed to the 24% pay gap that exists globally. A key point to be noted is the fact that in South Asia, the pay gap is alarmingly higher in the urban areas as compared to the rural areas. Agriculture remains the most important source of work in South Asia, which employs 71% of women and 47% of men. Female health and care workers are often paid criminally low wages and are more often than not employed voluntarily. For instance, the Anganwadi Childcare workers in India. The poor and hazardous working conditions adversely impact the lives of thousands of workers, such as the ‘2013 Rana Plaza disaster, where around 3,600 garment workers (most of them women) were either killed or severely injured after an eight-storey factory collapsed in Dhaka, Bangladesh. This report also talks about how across South Asia, women do and are also expected to engage more in unpaid care and domestic work as compared to their male counterparts. Such norms and practices give rise to the concept of “double burden” for women, where they need to meet the expectations at their workplace as well as ace all their familial duties, even though they aren’t compensated enough for either of them. Thus, even though there has been a substantial improvement in educational opportunities for women, the same cannot be said for their employment.
- Gendered Entrepreneurship Barriers-
A journal article titled “The Complex Relationship between Education and Female Labour: The Curious Case of India” by Tisya Munjal, examines the paradox of increasing female literacy rate and a declining participation of women in the labour force. This journal also goes on to say that governmental initiatives of programs and policies like “Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao” and the New Education Policy (NEP) of 2020 have failed to integrate women more effectively into the workforce. Some factors which contribute to such low participation of women in the workforce include- i) Societal and Cultural Norms, where deep-seated patriarchal mindsets and stereotypes restrict women’s work opportunities only to the private sphere, i.e., their respective homes. ii) Often, families encourage their daughters to finish at least some basic level of higher education, not to enhance their employment opportunities. Rather, this is done to boost their marriage prospects. In certain communities, a higher social status is attributed to families where the women are educated but not employed. iii) This journal also goes on to state that the curriculum is unable to adapt quickly to the fast-paced changing requirements for workers in Indian industries. With heavy emphasis on academic pursuits, vocational training in India tends to be neglected, and this results in women being unable to acquire specific skills that are required for employment.
More often than not, microcredit programs, though started with the intention of empowering women to make their own economic decisions, have the opposite effect. For instance, in Bangladesh, studies on Grameen Bank and BRAC microfinance programs have shown that though loans are given to women, they aren’t the ones to exercise control over the same. It is either their husbands or some other male relative who controls a significant portion of these loans. According to an article by Aminur Rahaman “Micro Credit Initiatives for Equitable and Sustainable Development: Who Pays?”, women perform the role of mere “intermediaries” who take loans under their names but transfer the control of the same to their husbands while they (the women) are still the ones who are responsible for repayment of the debt. Similar cases have also been found in Andhra Pradesh in India, where a severe microfinance crisis had unfolded in 2010. Numerous loans had been taken in the names of women through Self-Help Groups (SHGS) by their male family members, and then, the women were pressurised into repaying loans they had no control over. “Commercialisation of Micro Finance in India” by M.S. Sriram goes further into explaining this crisis. In both cases, failure of repayment has resulted in the women being victims of stigma, aggressive recovery tactics, domestic violence and a sharp increase in the suicide rates of over-indebted women. Various other South Asian countries, like Nepal, Pakistan, also face similar problems.
- Trafficking and Forced Labour-
According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), “Over 150,000 people are trafficked within South Asia every year for sex work, labour, forced marriages, organ trade and it is often the very economic state and conditions that contribute to the vulnerabilities of young people, women and children.” South Asian countries serve as significant origin, transit and destination locations for the trafficking of women, children and men. South Asia is mostly known because of the largest number of women and children being trafficked from or within the region. Traffickers lure the victims with promises of better employment prospects and trap them before they realise that it’s too late. The target audience is often people in rural areas who willingly turn them over to middlemen who promise better living conditions for them. The majority of the trafficking takes place for commercial sexual exploitation, where women are being forced into unprotected sexual acts with multiple partners.
Social Aspect of Violence Against Women in South Asia
South Asia is known for its remarkable economic disparities as well as its social diversity. It is home to more than 25% of the world’s population and is known for its vibrant young workforce, strong family values, and rich cultural traditions. Countries like Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and India have experienced remarkable economic growth, particularly in industries like services, technology and textiles. But ingrained problems still exist. The region faces social challenges like religious strife, caste prejudice and gender inequality. Urban centres prosper economically, but rural areas frequently fall behind due to widespread unemployment, poverty and restricted access to health care and education. In certain countries, political unrest and corruption impede progress even more. Therefore, even if South Asia has a lot of potential, resolving its systemic injustices is essential to making progress that is inclusive and balanced.
Violence against women is a major public health problem and a violation of women’s human rights. Global estimates published by the World Health Organisation (WHO) indicate that “about 1 in 3 (35%) of women worldwide have experienced either physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence or non-partner sexual violence in their lifetime.” In 2014, CEDAW’s conclusion to the Indian Government Report was that India has seen a sharp rise in violent crimes against women, especially rape and kidnapping, which increased by a startling 90.1% between 1971 and 2012. This increase demonstrates the ongoing impunity with which these crimes are perpetrated. In addition, women and girls from underprivileged communities have been disproportionately affected by the alarming rise in caste-based violence, including sexual abuse. In India, marital rape is still “not” considered a crime despite these concerning developments, which leaves many women without legal protection inside the institution of marriage. (Swayam, 2015)
The main obstacles to women’s upliftment in South Asia stem from a wide range of factors that contribute to the subjugation, discrimination and exposure to violence. Several of these key issues are discussed below:
Entrenched Inequality: Cultural and Social Roots
In South Asia, deep-rooted cultural, societal and patriarchal norms fuel gender inequality and normalise violence against women. From honour killings and dowry-related deaths to child marriage, trafficking, and domestic abuse, women face numerous forms of violence throughout their lives. These acts are often ignored or excused due to entrenched social beliefs and weak law enforcement. A UN study found that nearly half of men in six Asia-Pacific countries admitted to physically or sexually abusing their partners (Strachan, Adikaram and Kailasapathy). Gender discrimination begins at birth, with boys receiving preference over girls, who face neglect or even infanticide. Stereotypes portraying men as strong providers and women as weak perpetuate marginalisation, especially when compounded by limited education and economic dependence; they tend to believe that men are always right. The lack of support and acknowledgement of women’s capabilities is encapsulated in the deeply ingrained belief that “men can’t see women rise above them.”
Even educated women face harassment and institutional misogyny as patriarchal beliefs continue to restrict women’s autonomy and potential. For real progress, “change must begin at home,” challenging traditional laws supporting women’s leadership and ensuring equal opportunities in all areas of life. Without this shift, women will continue to endure mental, physical and emotional harm, often internalising subservience and sacrificing their voice and rights.
The Grip of Patriarchy
The social structure of the area is dominated by patriarchy, which upholds men’s authority over women. Women’s autonomy and access to justice are restricted by discriminatory laws and cultural norms that uphold this supremacy. Family structures, religious interpretations and educational resources all support and reinforce traditional gender norms, which place a premium on male authority and female subordination. While many Indians support the idea that men and women should share family responsibilities, traditional patriarchal attitudes remain deeply rooted across the country. A 2022 Pew Research Centre study revealed that 64% of Indian adults, including 61% of women, completely agree that a wife must always obey her husband. This sentiment emphasises how society expects women to be subservient. Around 34% assign women the majority of childbearing duties, while 43% think that males should be the family’s primary provider. These viewpoints impaired the advancement of gender equality by reinforcing traditional gender norms.
In South Asia, gender norms are heavily influenced by religious beliefs. Traditions can influence family duties, frequently giving reference to male family members. Also, the underrepresentation of women in the judiciary further exacerbates gender inequality, which results in the lack of female representation impeding the development of gender-sensitive legal interpretation and hindering women’s access to justice (World Economic Forum, 2024). For example, Nighat Dad from Pakistan endured domestic abuse in an arranged marriage. Utilising her legal education, she left her husband and later founded the Digital Rights Foundation to combat online harassment of women. Her experience highlights the systemic challenges women face and the resilience required to overcome them. These patriarchal structures have tangible adverse effects on women’s lives.
Silenced and Shamed: Blaming the Victim
The frequent blaming or stigmatisation of victims, while perpetrators remain unpunished, reflects the normalisation of violence against women. Social stigma discourages women from reporting abuse, and legal and law enforcement institutions often fail to respond adequately. Inadequate legal frameworks, lack of awareness and corruption further worsen the issue. Cultural traditions in South Asian countries often prioritise family honour over personal well-being, silencing victims of gender-based violence. Many women hesitate to report abuse due to fear of embarrassment, social exclusion or damaging their family’s reputation. Research indicates that societal pressure to maintain family unity discourages survivors from disclosing abuse or seeking help. Studies also show that fear of stigmatisation, victim blaming, rejection, and retaliation significantly reduces the likelihood of reporting sexual assault.
Even when cases are documented, law enforcement frequently falls short. For instance, in India, reported rape cases increased by 20% between 2021 and 2022, despite legislative reforms following high-profile incidents. This suggests that minimal interventions have not resolved the deeper issues. Corruption within legal and law enforcement systems further compounds the problem. In weakly governed or fragile regimes, corruption leads to severe human rights violations, including rape and assault. Women may be forced to pay bribes to access justice, while systemic discrimination deters them from pursuing legal action. Sometimes women are held accountable for the way they dress, as it is seen as a form of attraction and invitation, according to men in many cases. The convergence of victim-blaming, social stigma, inadequate law enforcement, and corruption creates an environment where perpetrators act with impunity and victims remain unsupported. Addressing these issues requires comprehensive legal reforms, public awareness campaigns to challenge harmful social norms and strong anti-corruption measures within the justice system. Equally important is empowering women through economic and educational opportunities to break the cycle of violence and foster a culture of respect and accountability.
Violence Against Women: The Productivity Killer
A study by the World Bank estimates that the cost of violence against women (VAW) in some countries reaches 3.7% of GDP, a figure that is more than double of entire national education budgets. In Bangladesh, GBV alone cost the economy nearly 2% of GDP in 2010, with women missing work due to injuries, psychological trauma, and social stigma. Additionally, fear of sexual harassment is a major reason that compels parents in South Asia to withdraw girls from school at puberty. Research from the garment industry in Bangladesh, a major form of employment for young women, finds that the harassment women face directly impairs productivity. This highlights how costly it is to the economies and societies that have to witness this gap between women’s potential and their reality.
The productivity loss is staggering. In India, studies show that women who experience violence are twice as likely to report poor health, which directly affects their ability to work or contribute effectively to the economy. In the corporate sector, pervasive workplace harassment leads to higher attrition rates, lower productivity, and increased absenteeism, deterring women from entering or staying in the workforce.
The informal sector, where most South Asian women work, amplifies the problem. Over 82% of employed women in India and 65% in Pakistan work in informal settings, where protections against harassment or violence are minimal to non-existent. When they face violence, they are left with no legal recourse, no financial safety net, and no access to support systems, perpetuating their vulnerability and dependence.
Economic Exploitation: A Direct Hit to the Economy
While gender-based violence inflicts immediate harm, economic exploitation of women operates as a slow, systemic drain on national productivity. Across South Asia, women are overrepresented in low-wage, insecure, and unpaid labour, which limits their economic mobility and reduces overall economic efficiency.
Pakistan’s gender wage gap stands at around 30%, meaning women earn significantly less than men for the same work. In India, women’s labour force participation has dropped to a mere 31.2% in 2023, one of the lowest rates globally. It has been reported that if India were to close this gap, its GDP could grow by an additional $770 billion by 2025.
Women in Pakistan spend 11 times more hours than men on unpaid domestic work, restricting their ability to join the formal economy. In Bangladesh, unpaid labour contributes to 76% of women’s total work hours, compared to just 24% for men, a structural inefficiency that limits women’s participation in the formal economy and the economic output. 71% of working women in South Asia are concentrated in agriculture and agrifood systems, often in the lowest-paid, least secure jobs. Despite their dominance in garment manufacturing in Bangladesh (where women make up 80% of the workforce), only a few (approx. 9%) hold managerial or decision-making roles. This occupational segregation reduces innovation, productivity, and long-term economic gains. Moreover, in the global race for economic dominance, South Asia lags due to its underutilization of nearly 50% of its population. Countries like Vietnam and China, where female labour participation is significantly higher, have far outpaced South Asia in export-led growth and industrial expansion.
Gender-based violence, whether in the form of domestic abuse, workplace harassment or institutional discrimination, or economic exploitation of women, is not just pa ersonal or social issue. They have proven to be an economic crisis. Every instance of gender-based violence, every hour lost to unpaid domestic labour, and every woman forced into low-paying, insecure work diminishes national productivity and limits long-term economic prosperity.
Traditional and Cultural Practices Exacerbating Violence Against Women: The Case of Bangladesh
International as well as regional, and national responses to the phenomenon of violence against women have helped to focus on a problem that was largely unrecognised for many centuries. Violence against women is a global incidence, and the 2006 United Nations Secretary-General’s report provides a significant study on all forms of violence against women to showcase how violence disrupts the peace of any nation. Professor Savitri Goonesekere, Senior Professor of Law Emeritus in the Faculty of Law at the University of Colombo, Sri Lanka, and former Vice Chancellor of the University who was also a member of the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women through her report throws light upon the orthodox and cultural practices that render women helpless therefore must be perceived today as harmful. This is essential because the dogmas associated with cultures and traditions are detrimental to the growth of universal sisterhood and feminist solidarity in the South Asian countries. These practices inhibit women’s participation in feminist movements and their attempts to claim universal human rights.
The advocates of human rights reinforce the universal applicability of human rights in determining violence against women. As culture is a heterogeneous component and is likely to differ according to space and time, the human rights norms should therefore be internalised, and the positive side of every culture should be adopted, and its detrimental consequences should be discarded.
Bangladesh, originally known as East Bengal, which acquired its independent status in 1972, has a strong influence of its Muslim majority population with a fusion of West Bengal’s Hindu Bengali culture. Bangladesh’s first independent government made a liberal move- adopting equality and prohibiting discrimination against women, providing punitive justice to practices such as dowry, human trafficking of women, child marriage and the like. But the country is still haunted by the traditional ethos that impairs the conditions of its women.
The preference for sons is one of the cruellest gender biases of the majority of South Asian countries. The patrilineal society considers sons as assets and glosses over the existence of daughters as liabilities. Son preference renders the girl child helpless, as in Bangladesh, even though abortion is illegal, evidence suggests otherwise. Complications emanating from induced abortion cover 70% of the deaths. Besides, this killing of female infants by their fathers, acid attack on females and selective abortion of female fetuses have been rampant. A PHREB, 2006 report mentions that pregnant women were given medicines by Imams that would fulfil their son’s preference. The preferential treatment is visible in most of the households, and the aggrieved mothers had to quit breastfeeding their girl child and try for a son, leaving them malnourished. In certain cases, the girls are discriminated against in terms of food allocation as they are forced to feed on leftover food. Despite the foresighted policy measures in paper, the reality portrays itself through the lack of access to equal education opportunities by the girls in comparison to their male counterparts and increasing school dropouts among the girl child.
As per the UNICEF report, Bangladesh ranks fourth-highest in terms of child marriage in the world. Despite the minimum legal age for marriage being 18 years for a girl child, the years 2005-2013 display that 29 % of women were married off at the age of 15 and 65 % were married off before the age of 18. Premarital sexual conduct is considered a shame to the family, and the value of virginity linked to the family honour is the justification given by the families. The resulting horror is the death of young girls during childbirth, between the ages of 20-24. The practice of incest often concludes in rape and loss of childhood for the Bangladeshi girls. Young girls have been traded off as adolescents to men who would consume their pride in return for a higher bride price and lesser dowry. Caste further cripples the lives of women in South Asian countries particularly, Bangladesh and India. The lower the position in the caste hierarchy, more limited the social mobility, the greater the exclusion from society and higher the chances of being victims of gendered violence, as marginalised women tend to face dual patriarchy- at one level, from the upper caste men and at another, from the men of their caste. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, in their 2003 report, highlighted that approximately 4.2 % of the people were engaged in bonded labour in informal sectors, worsening the occupational mobility of women and killing their financial independence, which can be their tool for liberation from hegemonic patriarchy
Data analysis of media reports displays the large number of women whom the legal reforms failed to protect from acid violence, causing physical disfigurements and socio-economic and psychological harm to women. The status of women in Bangladesh reflects that the incongruity between cultural relativism and the universality of human rights must be accepted to prevent culture from intervening in areas concerning the sovereignty, freedom, and dignity of a woman, to equip her to exercise her human rights.
Comparative analysis and policy recommendations
Scandinavian countries are pioneers when it comes to championing gender based violence and economic gaps. We see how their public policies aren’t just shaping the country but also increasing the productivity index of the entire region. Country-wise, let’s see the basic policies taken by countries to achieve this. Equal pay, shared parental obligations, and legal protection against gender-based violence are all prioritised in Swedish policy. 480 days of paid parental leave, including some days set aside especially for fathers, is a noteworthy feature. Sweden also has significant official assistance for victims of assault and progressive consent laws, which classify non-consensual intercourse as rape regardless of physical resistance. Norway is renowned for its robust childcare infrastructure and 40% women’s quota on business boards. Encouraging work-life balance and safeguarding them with stringent domestic violence laws that enable law enforcement to swiftly remove abusers, it empowers women. Denmark requires extensive relationship and consent instruction in schools, offers flexible work schedules, and subsidises childcare. Additionally, it runs fast-track courts to effectively address cases involving domestic abuse. Finland has created crisis centres that give comprehensive treatment for Gender Based violence survivors, supports women entrepreneurs with government-funded startup funding, and provides equal maternity leave for both parents. With its Equal Pay Certification law, which requires businesses to prove they pay men and women equally, Iceland has taken the lead globally. Additionally, it creates action plans with quantifiable goals to address gender-based violence and ensures three months of non-transferable paternity leave.
South Asian countries can also understand the implications of such gender neautral and progressive policies, not only are changing the society but also ensure that the country is doing much better. One way to achieve this is to country-wise implement policies which are reflection of progressiveness and bridge gender disparity
India
– Introduce paid paternity leave of at least 30 days.
– Mandate gender pay audits for companies with over 100 employees.
– Enforce quotas for women on boards of public-sector companies.
– Expand Anganwadi services into full-day, state-funded childcare centres.
– Launch a Women’s Innovation Fund to support women-led startups
– Pass a comprehensive consent law.
– Integrate gender and consent education in school curricula.
– Develop a National Action Plan on GENDER BASED VIOLENCE
– Create a Gender Equality Dashboard to monitor progress.
Pakistan
– Introduce legally mandated paternity leave of at least 15–21 days.
– Establish a Gender Equality Ombudsperson.
– Provide tax incentives to companies with over 30% female leadership.
– Launch community-based micro childcare hubs.
– Create targeted loan schemes for women entrepreneurs.
– Criminalize marital rape and adopt a consent-based definition of sexual violence.
– Launch district-level GBV courts to fast-track cases.
– Establish a national helpline with 24/7 support.
– Conduct mass media campaigns targeting masculinity norms.
– Train law enforcement and the judiciary in trauma-informed approaches.
Bangladesh
– Expand maternity benefits to informal workers.
– Provide startup capital grants for women in agriculture and business.
– Enforce gender representation laws in trade unions and cooperatives.
– Offer training and childcare through garment industry programs.
– Promote women-led micro childcare enterprises.
– Harmonize rape and assault laws to reflect consent.
– Establish state-funded shelters with reintegration support.
– Introduce non-transferable paternity leave.
– Launch school-based gender awareness programs.
– Improve GBV data reporting and transparency.
Nepal
– Implement equal parental leave policies in the civil services.
– Offer microgrants and mentorship to women-led SMES.
– Require crèches and daycares in offices with over 50 employees.
– Promote flexible working hours for mothers.
– Develop district-level women’s business hubs.
– Create community-based crisis centres.
– Train police in domestic violence response.
– Implement consent and gender equality modules in schools.
– Establish gender-disaggregated public data systems.
– Partner with male allies to shift masculinity norms.
Sri Lanka
– Harmonise parental leave policies across sectors.
– Develop gender-diverse corporate leadership programs.
– Support women-led cooperatives with seed funding.
– Subsidise early childcare programs in underserved regions.
– Implement equal pay reporting mechanisms.
– Set up national GBV data monitoring systems.
– Improve shelters with mental health and vocational services.
– Enact laws for the removal of abusers from homes.
– Introduce media literacy campaigns on GBV.
– Establish a gender justice unit in the Ministry of Justice.
Conclusion
It’s very important to make sure these studies are not just done in academic circles but also see the light of implementation in public policy. The gender equality index is the lowest in South Asia, and even the political participation is 10-20%. The informal sector records 20-35% female participation. The society is also extremely patriarchal; therefore, there needs to be female leaders making changes for the future females and leading the path of betterment in South Asia.
