Authored By: Arshia Kaushal, Jagrit Sharma, Mansha Panwar, Nishika Gupta, Pankhuri Bhattacharyya, Sneha P, Taju Aman 

Introduction

Gender-based violence (GBV) is one of the most persistent and multifaceted human rights violations globally, rooted in deeply entrenched power inequalities and patriarchal social structures. Defined by the United Nations as any act that results in or is likely to result in physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering based on gender, GBV is not only a private issue but a systemic problem affecting public health, justice systems, workplace dynamics, and digital platforms. The article examines GBV through a dual lens—its traditional forms in physical and institutional spaces, as well as its expanding presence in digital and virtual domains. The focus is to analyse how GBV continues to evolve, particularly with the rise of online misogyny, red pill ideology, and algorithm-driven content that normalises abuse against women and marginalised gender identities. This article aims to bridge these domains—online and offline—to present a holistic understanding of how GBV persists, adapts, and is perpetuated in modern society. It emphasises and calls for a multi-pronged approach combining legislative reform, education, digital accountability, and intersectional policymaking to tackle GBV as a deeply structural and evolving issue.

Gender-based Violence- An Overview 

Gender-based violence may include physical, sexual, emotional, psychological and financial abuse, or threats of abuse. People of all genders, sexual orientations and gender identities may experience gender-based violence, but women and girls are impacted the most.

The United Nations define gender-based violence in its Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women as an act that results in or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion, or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life (Lawrenz et al., 2018). It includes a host of harmful behaviors that are directed at women and girls because of their sex, including wife abuse, sexual assault, dowry-related murder, marital rape, selective malnourishment of female children, forced prostitution, female genital mutilation, and sexual abuse of female children (Heise et al., 2002). Violence against women is the most pervasive yet least recognised human rights violation in the world. Further causes are divided into two main categories:

• Patriarchal Roots of Inequality
  Patriarchy is a dimension of community between men and women related to the tasks. That further causes inequality and subordination within society. Such subordination leads to unfairness in the socioeconomic provision of society. According to Makama (2013), patriarchal society sets the parameters for women’s structurally unequal position in families and markets by condoning gender-differential terms in inheritance rights and legal adulthood, by tacitly condoning domestic and sexual violence, and sanctioning differential wages for equal or comparable work. Tradition or culture, and religion have dictated men’s and women’s relationships for centuries and entrenched male domination into the structure of social organisation and institutions at all levels of leadership. Patriarchy justifies the marginalisation of women in education, the economy, labour market, politics, business, family, domestic matters, and inheritance.
• Domestic Violence
  Kapoor (2000), the term ‘domestic’ includes violence by a close partner and by other family members, wherever this violence takes place and in whatever form. Domestic violence includes violence perpetrated by intimate partners and other family members, and manifested through: Physical abuse, Sexual abuse, psychological abuse, Economic abuse, acts of omission, and gender bias that discriminates in terms of nutrition, education and access to health care amounts to a violation of women’s rights. Anyone can be a victim of domestic violence, regardless of age, race, gender, sexual orientation, faith or class. Victims of domestic abuse may also include a child or other relative, or any other household member. Domestic abuse is typically manifested as a pattern of abusive behaviour toward an intimate partner in a dating or family relationship, where the abuser exerts power and control over the victim. Domestic abuse can be mental, physical, economic or sexual. Incidents are rarely isolated, and usually escalate in frequency and severity. Domestic abuse may culminate in serious physical injury or death.
  

Media, Masculinity &  Modern Misogyny: Toxic, Trending, and Taken Lightly?

Human beings are driven by endless desires, including the pursuit of perfection, often glorified by media and social platforms. Today’s digital age magnifies these ideals, influencing how youth perceive success, love, and self-worth. A significant cultural reference that has evolved in this landscape is the “red pill” from the 1999 film The Matrix. While originally symbolic of awakening to reality, it has been co-opted by men’s rights activists and conspiracy theorists to justify misogynistic ideologies.

In a world where Andrew Tate’s videos go viral and films like Kabir Singh and Animal dominate box offices, questions arise around how media shapes perceptions of masculinity. These portrayals often glorify hyper-masculine traits—emotional repression, dominance, and aggression—normalising toxic masculinity under the guise of entertainment. Social media algorithms further fuel this by amplifying misogynistic content that becomes dangerously mainstream, especially among teens.

Pop culture is no longer just a reflection of society; it now serves as a megaphone for toxic ideals. Terms like “alpha male” and “high value men” have crept into casual conversations, often without recognition of their harmful implications. Influencer-led podcasts and debates sensationalise gender issues rather than promote meaningful discourse. Female guests are frequently chosen for their perceived inability to argue effectively, reinforcing patriarchal norms and commodifying women’s rights for clicks and monetisation.

Moreover, some women have internalised and propagated these narratives for personal gain, complicating efforts toward gender equity. This calls for urgent accountability from content creators and platforms to curb hate disguised as entertainment.

The idea of a “gender war” has also taken root online, with social media serving as the battlefield. Misogyny is a serious concern, but growing hostility towards men also contributes to a toxic feedback loop. Platforms prioritise polarising content, creating echo chambers and escalating identity-based clashes between feminists, anti-feminists, and even within feminist circles. While social media empowers marginalised voices, it can also dilute genuine advocacy by fostering tribalism and hostility. A move towards dialogue-based digital spaces and media literacy is necessary to counteract this trend.

Influencer culture plays a major role in this polarisation. Figures like The Wizard Liz and Andrew Tate present themselves as champions of self-improvement, but their messages often reinforce harmful gender norms. Liz, while preaching empowerment, glorifies material success tied to male wealth, blurring the lines between autonomy and commodification. Tate, on the other hand, advocates hyper-masculinity and emotional detachment, promoting dominance over vulnerability.

Such content distorts youth values around equality, consent, and healthy relationships, promoting transactional and extreme gender roles. The binary of “alpha males” versus “hyper-feminine” women leaves little room for mutual respect. It is crucial to critically examine the influence of such digital figures and foster more nuanced, inclusive dialogues around gender in the online space.

Influencers who promote extreme, performative lifestyles under the banner of empowerment or masculinity contribute to the cultural polarisation of gender. Their messages often reflect personal contradictions and harmful standards, yet continue to shape the mindsets of young audiences globally. A critical re-evaluation of such digital role models is urgently needed.

The Red Pill content: “But what does ‘take the red pill’ actually mean?”

This discussion begins with the popularisation of the term “manosphere” by Ian Ironwood in his book, “The Manosphere: A New Hope for Masculinity (2013).” The term signifies communities that broadcast aggressive views about women—an amalgamation of so-called self-help influencers, websites, and forums that often promote violent misogyny. Within the manosphere, another term that catches our attention is the “red pill.” The term depicts the enlightenment of men to perceive “feminist brainwashing” and misandry. The goal of this online community of the manosphere is to make both men and women great again by perpetuating traditional gender roles. Instances of these beliefs are highlighted on subreddits like Men’s Rights, Men Going Their Way, Red Pill Theory, and many more.

Violence against women can take many different shapes, especially because of the advent and rather unmonitored use of digital spaces. It is crucial to understand the scale of impact of such content and actions.

• Rape Myths: Many alpha male podcasters have openly shared rather disturbing views on rape, designating them as rape myths which mean false beliefs about sexual assault incidents and have a role in shaping rape culture. Such beliefs are demonstrated in statements like “they went out looking like that”, “they were asking for it,” etc. Such beliefs therefore unknowingly condone rapes, and even murder by blaming the victim.
• Perpetuating Stereotypes: Online slut shaming, victim shaming, objectification of women’s bodies, sexualization of female characters in video games and films etc not only promote gender stereotypes but also make it a norm of a society where violence against women is accepted.
• Offline implications of online violence: Online violence trickles into offline spaces and is not contained by the digital sphere. It seeps into the daily lives of women and adolescent girls and torments them psychologically, emotionally and physically. It brings to them shame, paranoia and isolation to such an extent that it results in death through honour killing, murder and suicide. In fact, on July 7, 2023, a man in Jordan was charged with murder, for young women were being attacked by their male relatives for appearing to talk to men on mobile phones. In September 2022, Sudan honour killings had already doubled compared to the prior year. These acts of violence originate with technology and coerce the victims to bear the implications in real-life settings. Furthermore, technology has also enabled intimate partner violence by allowing abusers to stalk and monitor the people they have been in relationships with.

What Does This Imply?
Online misogyny is a contemporary phenomenon that dominates women’s online as well as offline interactions. Misogyny, “in short, has gone viral” (Jane, 2017, 3). Equal human dignity is at the heart of human rights, and misogyny blatantly opposes this ideal; it’s inherently incompatible with the idea of equal human dignity. This violence against women moves the pendulum from digital to physical spaces, violates human rights and denies victims a respected life of freedom from violence.

Detoxifying masculinity: Through social media

Red pill content—widely circulated on platforms like TikTok, YouTube, and Instagram—presents itself as truth-telling and self-improvement, but is deeply rooted in misogynistic ideology. A common phrase used by its proponents, “It’s not hate, it’s just facts,” masks the toxic narratives beneath. Videos tagged #RedPillTruth frequently push ideas like women being inherently “hypergamous,” deny systemic gender inequalities like the pay gap, and argue that society is increasingly hostile toward men. What began as a niche internet subculture has evolved into a mainstream phenomenon, blending viral content, pseudo-science, and patriarchal anxiety.

The origins of this ideology can be traced to the “red pill” metaphor from The Matrix (1999), where taking the red pill meant awakening to a hidden reality. However, in online spaces such as Reddit’s r/TheRedPill, 4chan, and the broader manosphere, this metaphor was repurposed to suggest awakening to “truths” about gender. These platforms promote the idea that feminism has corrupted women and weakened men, pushing a regressive vision of gender roles under the guise of enlightenment. As these ideas migrated from forums to social media, they became more accessible and monetised, transforming into influencer-driven brands and viral content empires.

The appeal of red pill content lies not only in its message but also in its marketing. It rarely begins with open misogyny; instead, it often presents itself as mentorship or motivational content. Videos and podcasts emphasise financial success, fitness, discipline, and confidence—topics that resonate with young men struggling with insecurity, loneliness, or economic instability. These surface-level appeals make the deeper ideological shift more palatable and covert. Gradually, viewers are introduced to more extreme beliefs: emotional vulnerability is dismissed as weakness, women are portrayed as status-seeking and untrustworthy, and men are positioned as victims of modern feminism.

This slow radicalisation process is reinforced by algorithmic echo chambers that reward engagement and amplify controversial content. For young men lacking emotional support or positive male role models, red pill influencers appear authoritative and relatable, offering a sense of belonging and purpose. However, this guidance often leads them into rigid, adversarial views of gender and relationships. The red pill ecosystem reframes misogyny as empowerment, toxic masculinity as self-mastery, and grievance as truth.

Far from being a harmless internet trend, red pill ideology poses a serious social challenge. It’s spread undermines gender equality, distorts democratic discourse, and risks alienating a generation of young men. Addressing this issue requires more than critique—it demands proactive efforts to offer healthier models of masculinity, emotional literacy, and inclusive mentorship that counteract the appeal of algorithm-driven radicalisation.

Cyber Violence and Online Harassment: A Growing Digital Threat

Courage is Fire, and Bullying is Smoke.” – Benjamin Disraeli.
In the digital age, the internet has transformed communication, but it has also created avenues for abuse. Cyber violence and online harassment, especially gender-based, are rising concerns globally. They include cyberstalking, doxxing, non-consensual image sharing, identity theft, and sextortion, causing long-lasting emotional and psychological harm. Often fuelled by misogyny and sexism, these acts reflect and reinforce offline inequalities. Cyber violence is difficult to define due to its evolving nature. Online harassment broadly includes using digital platforms to intimidate, shame, or threaten. Women and marginalised genders are the most affected.

Forms of Cyber Violence: These abuses happen across social media, messaging apps, emails, gaming platforms, and dating sites—spaces where anonymity emboldens perpetrators.

• Digital Sexual Harassment: In Spain, 9.15% of women, mainly youth, experienced this, with increased suicidal tendencies (Benítez-Hidalgo et al., 2024).
• Cyberstalking: Difficult to trace, but trained law enforcement can track perpetrators 
• Cyberbullying: Common among teens, involving humiliation, threats, or rumour spreading 
• Non-consensual Image Sharing: “Revenge porn” often leads to victim-blaming by even law enforcement 
• Trolling: Linked to digital fatigue and aggression 
• Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence: UN (2023) reports that 73% of women journalists face online abuse.
• Doxxing: Publishing personal information online to threaten or shame 

Legal Frameworks: International frameworks include the Budapest Convention (Council of Europe, 2001), GDPR (Regulation EU 2016/679), EU Cybersecurity Act (Regulation EU 2019/881), and UN GGE Reports (2013, 2015) (Harandi, 2025). In India, the Information Technology Act, 2000, IPC, CrPC, Indian Evidence Act, and others offer partial protection (Indian Cybercrime Coordination Centre, 2025). However, enforcement gaps and underreporting persist (COE).

Challenges

• Children benefit from stronger protections; adult women face legal gaps (COE).
• Cross-border cybercrimes face delays due to conflicting laws (Luther, 2024).
• Prosecution is hampered by anonymity and a lack of technical tools (Gates, 2024).
• Platforms like Facebook and Instagram lack consistent enforcement, shielded by laws like the U.S. Section 230 (Milosevic, 2016; Johannes, 2025).

Cultural and Social Roots: Cyber violence reflects societal attitudes—victim-blaming, gender norms, and taboos. In Bangladesh, stigma and poor law enforcement prevent women from seeking justice. Marginalised voices are further silenced.

Addressing Violence Against Men in India

While discussions around gender-based violence (GBV) have rightly focused on violence against women, emerging perspectives suggest the need to recognise that GBV can also affect men. This is generally based on confirmation bias that only women are victims of gender-based violence, since crimes and violence against women are relatively higher than against men. But this cannot be the ground to deny any case of gender-based violence against men; the constitution, in its Article 14, guarantees every citizen, irrespective of gender, the right to equality. The legal frameworks and laws have largely focused on women’s rights, have overlooked the long-term impact of such laws turning into tools to extort money by filing false cases and accusations, which hurt the dignity of men and violate Article 21 of the Constitution, which guarantees a right to life with dignity.

The recent case of Atul Subhash opened up about the untold and unspoken issue that several men face, and things go silent due to the social stigma. The case also put forth the misuse of section 498K of the IPC, which criminalises cruelty to wives by husbands or their relatives, including both dowry demands and other forms of harassment. While the intent of the law is protective, its application has sparked debate on the need for safeguards against potential false accusations.

 The term “harassment or sexual harassment” is typically synonymous with sexual harassment of women, which overlooks the issue of GBV against men. The case of Rajesh Kumar v. State of Uttar Pradesh highlighted the need for gender-neutral laws to address domestic violence. This is important so that the “legal blackmail” of husbands is heard, and the filing of false accusations is stopped. Though more clarity is required, and definitions need to be revisited. Consider a case of quid pro quo at the workplace. In such cases, the men will be subjected to discrimination. The National Mental Health Survey of India (2016) reported that 1 in 5 men experienced mental health issues. Still, only a fraction sought treatment due to societal stigma, which perpetuates victim-blaming, where men are shamed for being vulnerable or emotional. A survey conducted by the National Crime Records Bureau, according to which less than 2% of reported sexual harassment cases involve male victims, means the cases go unreported.

While the men’s rights discourse is still evolving in India, its core objective aligns with broader goals of gender equity: to create legal and social systems that ensure protection and justice for all individuals, regardless of gender.  Legal reforms are necessary to protect everyone from abuse, and efforts must continue to create a balanced legal system that protects the rights of all individuals regardless of gender.

Workplace Inequality and Harassment 

One of the more overlooked yet pervasive forms of GBV is workplace inequality and harassment. This form of violence undermines women’s participation, safety, and advancement in professional environments. Workplace GBV includes a variety of harmful behaviours targeting individuals, primarily women, based on their gender identity.

• Sexual Harassment involves unwelcome sexual behaviour that creates a hostile environment. It ranges from verbal harassment to unwanted physical advances and non-verbal actions like sending explicit messages. The psychological impact can be long-lasting.
• Psychological Abuse refers to emotional manipulation intended to degrade or control a person’s mental well-being.
• Economic Inequalities, such as the gender pay gap and job segregation, limit women’s access to fair wages and advancement. Women are often concentrated in lower-paying roles and face barriers like the “glass ceiling.”
• Physical Abuse in the workplace includes actions such as hitting or threatening behaviour that creates physical insecurity. A 2022 ILO report found men were statistically more likely to face physical abuse, but this does not lessen the significance of violence experienced by women.

Workplace GBV is rooted in broader gender inequalities. Occupational segregation and limited decision-making roles for women reflect systemic patterns. Sectors like healthcare and education, labelled as ‘feminine’, are often undervalued. The ILO’s 2019 Convention No. 190 addresses workplace violence and promotes inclusive protections for all types of workers.

Persistent factors: Gender-based violence at work is not just individual, but rather it reflects deeper structural and societal inequalities, often influenced by factors like race, class, and religion. Addressing it requires both policy change and cultural transformation.

• Gender norms and stereotypes shape perceptions of men as leaders and women as caregivers, affecting hiring and advancement.
  
• Power dynamics in male-dominated leadership often create environments that ignore or tolerate harassment.
  
• Weak support structures and poorly enforced workplace policies fail to adequately protect victims.
  
• Economic dependence can prevent women from speaking out due to fear of losing income or job security.

Conclusion

The article highlights the multifaceted nature of gender-based violence (GBV) in the digital age, revealing how GBV has evolved to include psychological and social harm perpetuated online. Technology-facilitated GBV (TFGBV) presents new challenges, where algorithms amplify misogynistic voices, and influencers distort gender roles. Survey findings confirmed high exposure to toxic content and its impact on youth behaviour and attitudes. This underscores the urgent need for multi-layered interventions: stronger platform regulation, gender-sensitive education, and digital literacy. Combating GBV—both online and offline—requires a collective effort to dismantle normalised ideologies that sustain gender inequality and promote dignity and safety for all.

Policy Gaps & Recommendations

Digital gender-based violence remains a critical concern, with several pressing research and implementation gaps. Key issues include low public awareness of digital rights, limited education on digital ethics among youth, and the invisibility of vernacular-speaking or underserved populations. The brief highlights the need to fund targeted outreach research, pilot digital ethics curricula, and conduct inclusive studies on algorithm-driven content and intergenerational digital literacy. Implementation challenges such as victim-blaming, inaccessible support systems, and outdated cyber laws necessitate simplified reporting, modernised legislation, and stronger content moderation. Support for positive content creators, safe digital spaces, and parent-educator-youth dialogues is essential for a safer, equitable online environment. These targeted efforts are crucial for building safer and more equitable digital environments.

Call to Action: Cultivating Responsible Digital Citizenship in the Age of Algorithmic Influence

Gender inequality is pervasive throughout the world, although the nature and extent of gender differences vary considerably across countries and regions. In most countries, men and women experience substantial disparities in their legal rights, access to and control over resources, economic opportunities, power, and political voice. 

‘Gender mainstreaming’ is a strategy for redressing these inequalities. In simpler words, it is the process or means by which these unequal conditions are addressed to achieve the goal of gender equality. This means ensuring a gender lens is applied to all organisational and programmatic activities, including a focus on promoting gender equality and empowering women and girls. Gender determines access and control over resources. In gender mainstreaming, addressing their practical and strategic needs gives women and men equal access to resources and decision-making processes and thereby achieving gender equality. 

As the influence of Red Pill content and other toxic digital narratives continues to rise, it becomes imperative to move beyond critique and towards proactive solutions. Tackling such deeply embedded and algorithmically amplified ideologies demands a multi-layered, intersectional approach that addresses the root causes, the systems of amplification, and most importantly, offers constructive alternatives.

This reflection isn’t just about condemning one group of influencers—it’s about choosing not to normalise or consume harmful narratives that distort gender relations. We must be more mindful of the content we consume and question whether it promotes empathy or division. Red Pill-style ideologies thrive on fear, isolation, and oversimplification of complex social dynamics. If we truly want to foster an inclusive and respectful society, it starts by rejecting toxic media and embracing platforms that uphold dignity, equity, and respect for all. Let us be intentional in breaking the cycle of digital misogyny, not amplifying it.

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